Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The importance of quality instruction in schools cannot be underestimated. However, the instructional quality in Nigerian tertiary schools seems persistently low, and worrisome based on the students unemployability in labour market .This has continued to be a subject of concern to individuals, the public, government, and other stakeholders. This paper accessed instructional quality in Nigerian tertiary education and its implications for national development. Thus, the interest point of this paper lies in the fact that Nigerian tertiary education appears to have failed to provide its recipients with the required quality, to take their place in society as self-supporting individuals for national development. The paper shows that teachers as a central factor have to make a lot of decisions at a classroom level: about goals, the allocation of time to (groups of or individual) students, use of material, their own instruction, and behaviour management during the instructional process. The paper recommends that, critical stakeholders, through their various supervising ministries and agencies, should advise and ensure that qualified teachers are recruited into the teaching positions in Nigerian tertiary institutions.

Introduction

Learning is a complex activity that puts students’ motivation and physical condition to the test. It has been a long-held assumption that curriculum and teaching have an impact on learning. However, it is becoming more apparent that instructional quality in our schools can influence student achievement. This attest to the fact why education in Nigeria needs improvement at all levels, essentially in all its aspects of teaching and learning. Nigeria tends to be bold in thought but timid in action with regard to its educational policies. Nigeria spent time talking about theories, while the schools remain in their comfortable ruts and the relevance of education is left in doubt. In addition, Maina¹ stated that unlike Britain and America, the Nigerian government with its educational planners and administrators relied more on lofty educational policies, political inanities, spurious data and unrealistic budget proposals. For this reason the Nigeria began to experience constant degradation in the direction of sub-human and underdevelopment. Global exploitation, misrule, ignorance, poverty and diseases seemed to have become a recurring decimal in the order of the day.

Nigeria like other countries in the world recognises instructional quality as the major instrument for quality of tertiary education, effective national development, inclusive growth, progress, technological breakthrough, advancement in human attainment and world peace. Instructional quality in Nigerian tertiary education can only be positively and fully attained if there is quality delivery. For example, for Nigeria’s tertiary education to become globally competitive issue of quality instruction should be of paramount important. Tertiary education in its ideal frame of mind is committed to the realization of positive changes in the society. Education and educational institutions mobilize, radicalize, revolutionalise and sensitize a people for those behaviours that are conducive for progress and harmonious living. Instructional quality in tertiary education develops in people positive qualities that enable them to acknowledge their limitations while at the same time belt up or crave to transcend their limitations. People who have acquired the right education are great assets to their societies in all ramifications. They make development easier for their state but very problematic to be enslaved or marginalized.

Thus, the interest point of this paper lies in the fact that Nigerian tertiary education appears to have failed to provide its recipients with the required quality, to take their place in society as self-supporting individuals as a results of lack of Instructional quality including curriculum, quality of content, qualification and experience of teachers, availability of instructional aids, and motivation for users (both teachers and students), well-managed educational systems, and functional assessment techniques.

Conceptual context of instructional quality

Quality is an elusive concept. This is because it is a general term that is applicable to any trait or characteristic, whether individual or generic. Hornby² perceives it as the standard of something when compared to other similar items; the degree of excellence of a product or service; or the distinctive attribute or characteristic possessed by someone or something. In the opinion of Newel and Dale³, it is the level of achievement in five basic areas: people, equipment, methods, materials, and the environment. Peter⁴ avers in broad terms that quality in the context of this paper, can be defined as having the characteristics of being well thought out; prepared with care, and implemented with responsibility; having a firm direction but flexible enough to cope with contextual variation; and being positively responsive to comment and criticism.

In the word of Ndiomu⁵, and Majasan⁶, quality instruction is that instruction which is relevant to the needs of the society. That is, quality instruction is value-loaded with the argument that quality instruction should produce disciplined behaviour, hard work, improved cultural heritage and mutual respect within and outside the school community. Hence Akinpelu⁷ argues that education without quality instruction can be even more dangerous than no education, stressing further that without quality instruction, education has no value. Adebanjo⁸ remarked that if a teacher is incompetent, a good output cannot be expected. Thus, a competent teacher is regarded as one who has undergone relevant training in a chosen field of study and is certificated. Furthermore,Eurydice⁹ wrote that instructional quality in tertiary education includes ‘the framework in which tertiary institution pursues its goals, objectives and policies in a coherent co-ordinate manner’. In other words, instructional quality tertiary education pertains to employable graduands across institution.

The issue of quality is the most widely used and spoken concepts in formal education system in Nigeria that is why Emmanuel; Ikenna & Bala¹⁰ sees the concept of quality as ambiguous and elusive, thereby making the understanding of its meaning difficult to arrive at. This is essentially true in education as compared to industry where clearly definable products with quantifiable qualities exist. Accordingly, Emmanuel at el¹¹ contends that the “product” of education is intangible and the customer very difficult to identify. That is to say, virtually everybody recognizes it when it is seen but scarcely, anyone can specify its components or features with any degree of precision or confidence. Quality instruction is to have essential knowledge by inculcating positive values and mastering of useful skills that will increasingly make life meaningful to an individual and his society. It is a process that will produce the kind of citizens needed by a country at any given time. The operation of unqualified and under-qualified educators in the school’s system impacts negatively on the quality of instruction. The activities of qualified and competent teachers cannot be under-estimated in achieving the stated goals and quality instruction in the school.

Theory of Educational Effectiveness

This paper is build on the theory of educational effectiveness propounded by Creemers¹² who opined that effective instruction starts with teachers in the classrooms and this refers to two important implications. Firstly, teachers as a central factor have to make a lot of decisions at a classroom level: about goals, the allocation of time to (groups of or individual) students, use of material, their own instruction, and behaviour management during the instructional process. Secondly, to guide the planning of the instructional process by teachers and the development of effective arrangements, central guiding ideas are of crucial importance. These can be found, next to the goals of education, in theories and research about learning and teaching, and in theories and research about the quality and effectiveness of instruction.

The theory presents a holistic view on education as it considers the outcomes of education, the input, the process, and the context in which education takes place. In this paper, the outcome of education is the proportion of students transiting from tertiary institutions having graduated such institutions through final examinations approved by the school senates. The outcome can also be the value added by tertiary education to the initial attributes of students to become more useful individuals in the society. The theory consists of variables such as the background of the teacher, the method of teaching, and time-on task which is the semesters students spend on school learning which can be expanded by school test.

Importantly, the theory consists of components such as teachers’ characteristics which to Creemers¹³ make a difference between effective and non-effective instruction. At the classroom level, the characteristics of effective instruction are related to time-on-task and opportunity to learn. The quality of teachers and materials, grouping and behaviour is in one way or another related to the time available for learning. Thus, Creemers’ idea on teachers’ characteristics as being integral to instructional quality serves as the theoretical backdrop for this paper.

Current State of the Nigerian Tertiary Education System

Tertiary education is a critical element of human development, and it is essential to the growth and development of any country. A country’s ability to experience changes, surmount challenges, and keep up with the latest global developments across all sectors is derived mainly from its educated populace. However, for tertiary education to contribute meaningfully to the making of balanced and analytical citizens capable of leading governments as well as driving economies and industries, its instructional quality has to be excellent and tertiary education in Nigeria is far from this. In most countries of the world, enough premiums are given to tertiary education in a bid to prepare students for global relevance and competitiveness. In Nigeria, although the tertiary education system has come a long way, there is still much to be done in terms of achieving the level of excellence required to produce trained individuals capable of driving national growth and development. This paper aims to examine the current state of tertiary education systems in Nigeria, highlight core lessons from global standard practices, and recommend ways in which the quality of tertiary education in the country can be further improved.

Instructional quality in tertiary education in Nigeria is disgracefully low. Nigerian graduates owing to this, are no match for their counterparts in other parts of the world. The sorry state of tertiary education in Nigeria is also responsible for the increase in its none-literate or school dropout population. The yearly dropout rate from across all universities in Nigeria is over 18%. All this costs the country dearly; first, it inspires a tremendous brain drain. Nigeria currently ranks 10th on the International Student Leading Place of Origin. Of the 71,753 Nigerian students studying abroad, 14,438 are studying in the U.S., which represents a 12% increase in enrollment numbers from the previous academic year (12,860).This educational mobility, as well as the lack of employability, takes a destructive toll on the country’s economy.

In Nigeria, Doris Dokua Sasu¹⁴, states that there are 170 universities in Nigeria. As of 2023, 79 were private, federal universities amounted to 43, while state universities were 48, 132 polytechnics, 26 monotechnics, and 89 colleges of education. This brings the total number of tertiary institutions in Nigeria to about 417. This number of higher education institutions is not enough to cater for the population. Figures from the National Bureau of Statistics show that from According to a JAMB¹⁵ policy document obtained, the over 400,000 unallocated admission spaces represent 43.78 per cent of the total admission quota in last year’s Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME). Data extracted from the document show that tertiary institutions only admitted 551,553 candidates out of the 956,809 admission quota available to them from the 2021 UTME. According to the JAMB, two-thirds of about two million applicants who sought access in 2019-2022 were unsuccessful. Public tertiary institutions are finding it increasingly hard to cope with the admission pressure that seems to become more compelling each year. And while there is significant private sector participation in the Nigerian tertiary educational system, private schools are available to only a minority of the population as these private institutions are not quite affordable. Thus, average Nigerians are left to jostle for the limited number of slots available in the public universities. In comparison, the United States has over 3 000 tertiary institutions, France has over 3 500, and India has over 4 000.

Another problem facing the tertiary education system is the lack of proper funding. Statistically, Nigeria ranks amongst the lowest countries in terms of the budget allocated towards tertiary education. the then Nigeria’s President, Muhammadu Buhari approved the 2023 financial disbursement to publicly tertiary institutions, Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education (CoE), in Nigeria in line with Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund)¹⁶ approved guidelines the sum of N320,345,040, 835. (Three hundred and twenty billion, three hundred & forty-five million. Forty thousand, eight hundred & thirty-five Naira only). Based on this, each university will receive, for the Year 2023 intervention cycle, the total sum of  N1,154,732,133.00.

The fund comprises N954,732,123.00 as annual direct disbursement and N200 million as zonal intervention. Similarly, each Polytechnic shall get N699,344,867.00 comprising of N569,344,807.00 as annual direct disbursement and N130million as zonal intervention, while each College of education receives N800,862,602 comprising of N670,862,602.00 as annual direct disbursement and N130million as zonal intervention as the funds represent the highest disbursement to each beneficiary institution, since the inception of the Fund. Between 2015 to date (8 years), the total sum of N1,702trillion has been disbursed as Education tax collection to public universities, polytechnics and colleges of education compared to a total sum of N1.249trillion disbursed from the inception of the Fund in 1993 up to 2014 (21 years). This resulted in an increase in education tax from 2.0% to 2.5% in the year 2021. In 2022, the then President approved the sum of 189billion Naira for the public Higher Institutions which represented 80percent¹⁷.

The struggle between the government and the tertiary institution staff nationwide over funding has become a national reality. The system is built such that the public universities rely majorly on the government to fund the operation of the university and pay staff salaries. However, the poor state of national finances has left the government unable to fulfill its financial obligations towards tertiary institutions appropriately. Strikes and protests are an annual occurrence, and these mass actions often lead to a disruption in the school calendar. This lack of funding, in turn, leads to a lack of infrastructure. Laboratories in public universities are typically under equipped, lecture theatres in states of despair, hostels are unconducive and sometimes, a threat to the health of students, libraries are neither updated nor upgraded, there is no proper utilisation of ICT and the internet, etc. Furthermore¹⁸, there is no concrete framework for the training and retraining of tertiary institution staff. A lack of instructional quality exposure to modern methods of teaching and training will ensure that the tertiary education process remains stuck in antiquity. This is bad for development because globally, countries make sure that their education systems evolve with the times. Such an evolution can only be done by members of staff who recognise the need to develop and appreciate it. In Nigeria, to a great extent, such a mentality is lacking among tertiary institutions staff. It is important to note that anyone who does not evolve via training and re-training to stay relevant in their field stands the risk of becoming obsolete and irrelevant in our fast-paced, ever-changing world.

The Federal Government of Nigeria¹⁹ in its educational policy, among other things, acknowledged the place of instructional quality as a prerequisite for acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental, physical and social abilities and competences, as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of his society. The Nigerian educational goals are only good on paper and theory but not in practice.

Buttressing the above, Lyons²⁰ opined that learning is a complex activity that puts learners’ motivation and physical condition to the test. It has been a long-held assumption that curriculum and teaching have an impact on learning. However, it is becoming more apparent that the physical condition of our schools can influence learners. Cash²¹ stated that facility condition in tertiary institution such as laboratories, accommodations, condition of classroom furniture, had a significant effect on student achievement and their socio-economic status.

Analytically, instructional quality in tertiary institutions seeks to refine learners, teachers, administrators; policy makers by developing in them the potentials to live a meaningful, or productive and responsible life in society and transforming their environment for the benefit of humanity. Instructional quality in tertiary institutions, therefore, is a leading adage for reforming outmoded economic and political institutions. Accordingly, Maduabum²² maintained that instructional quality in Nigerian tertiary education as it is today in Nigeria, is running short of the meaning, and consequently is a disappointment to social expectations and the esteem in which it is held. Tertiary education is meant to help its recipient develop his abilities, skills, initiatives and other forms of behaviour that are of positive value for the individual and his society. It was at this wake of thought that Maina²³ argued that any nation that seeks relevance in the global economy, cannot afford to neglect instructional quality education. It is human resources not income or material resources that constitute the ultimate basis for the wealth of nations. Capital and natural resources are passive factors of production. Human beings are the active agents who co-ordinate and mobilize capital, exploit natural resources, build social economy and political organizations, to carry forward the national development.

The need for instructional quality in Nigerian tertiary education for national development cannot be overstated. The stage of development attained by a country is analogous to its state of instructional quality in tertiary education. National development is appraised in terms of mental and physical indices. It is the instructional quality that bequeaths the psychological attitudes and physical skills which enable the citizenry to bring about national development. A poorly developed and/or maintained educational system cannot bring about the needed transformation. Oshita¹⁹ added that the development and maintenance of any educational system is a policy issue. It is philosophy of education that provides us with deep and wide-ranged approach to understanding educational issues and problems in relation to instructional quality. The interplay of education and philosophy can, and do, have positive influence on development. While education exposes us to array of information regarding the posture development should take, it is philosophy that teaches us to maintain open and critical mind in the midst of diverse ideas.

In Nigeria, the capacity of the country’s educational system through quality instruction to bring about the desired development has been hampered by problems and issues of instructional quality. One of the key issues identified by scholars is quality financing. Quality funding is a critical aspect for educational development to occur. It is quality funds that are used to develop the human and physical infrastructure of the educational system. The criticality of quality financing can be abstracted from the recommendation of UNESCO²⁴ that 26% of annual budget of developing countries should be devoted to educational development.

It therefore follows that any country which is unable to develop the skills or the creative knowledge of its people and to utilize them effectively in its national economy like Japan and China may not develop anything else. In other words, the apparent failure of Nigerian education can be traced to lack of instructional quality in tertiary education.

Practical Analysis of Teachers’ Characteristics and Instructional Quality

The significance of instructional quality in tertiary education has positive effect on student learning that is similar across same course. However, student learning varies systematically across institutions and this can be seen from teacher’s characteristics such as qualification, professionalism, and experience. This is because teachers appear to have an influence on students’ learning beyond their impact on the curriculum of the subjects completed in the classrooms. It is well-documented that student learning may vary substantially across classrooms in tertiary institutions depending on the experience of the teachers.

There are diverse opinions from the parents, teachers, employers of labour and the government about the quality of instruction in Nigerian tertiary institutions. This perhaps shares affinity with the increasing rate of tertiary institutions graduates who are unemployable. Clearly, quality instruction in Nigerian tertiary institutions is a crucial tool for national development. For Eric, Rich and Shalli²⁵, an academic instruction is qualitative if the learners take less time to assimilate, the learners spend a major portion of instructional time actively engaged in learning, the teacher achieves a high level of success, content coverage is achieved, the teacher proceeds through the curriculum as specified by the regulatory agencies, and individual learners gain mastery of specific skills. Following this trajectory, one can assume that a Nigerian tertiary education is not qualitative enough. For this study, quality instruction is that instruction which is relevant and adapted to the needs of the society (Ndiomu²⁶. Majasan²⁷ maintains that quality instruction is value-loaded with the argument that quality instruction should produce disciplined behaviour, hard work, improved cultural heritage and mutual respect within and outside the school community. Hence Akinpelu²⁸ argues that education without quality instruction can be even more dangerous than no education, stressing that without quality, education instruction has no value. In Adebanjo²⁹, it was remarked that if a teacher is incompetent, a good output cannot be expected. Thus, a competent teacher is regarded as one who has undergone relevant training in a chosen field of study and is certificated. In agreement with this view, the South African Ministry of Education (SAME)³⁰ posits that the operation of unqualified and under-qualified educators in the school’s system impacts negatively on the quality of teaching. The activities of qualified and competent teachers cannot be under-estimated in achieving the stated goals and quality instruction in the school.

In Adeyemi³¹ on the influence of teachers’ factors on students’ academic performance, he content that students taught by experienced teachers outperform those taught by inexperienced ones. Jekayinfa³², in another similar study, notes that the quality, relevance, adequacy, and competence of teachers are in doubt and this result in a lack of confidence in the Nigerian educational system. In addition, Obanya³³ affirms that good teachers must be quantitatively adequate, properly educated, professionally prepared and well-motivated. It has thus been established that it is necessary to provide students with an effective instruction at tertiary institutions as a means of providing a solid foundation for national development.

Conclusion

Thus, for effectiveness of instructional quality in tertiary education, the fundamental factor is to be able to deliver quality instructions, which emanates from the teacher’s experience and professionalism as over the years, the issue of instructional quality has been a major concern in Nigerian tertiary institutions, which is evident from unemployable graduates. Importantly, this paper maintained that for quality instruction and improved academic performance, it is necessary to rely on the services of qualitative teachers.

Recommendations

Teachers should be encouraged to attend educational conferences, seminars, and in-service programmes where issues relating to quality instruction are discussed as this will expose the teachers to practical capacity programmes on instructional development and can also form part of the promotion requirements for teachers.

Critical stakeholders, through their various supervising ministries and agencies, should advise and ensure that qualified teachers are recruited into the teaching positions in Nigerian tertiary institutions.

References

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

In civil societies, tertiary education does not operate in isolation of politics. For politics is the avenue through which Stakeholders shape and control tertiary education. Meddling with Nigerian tertiary education however is internal and external politics. These politics are more of intrigues as they involve crafty plots to achieve sinister ends. As such, politics in Nigeria direly impact on the quality of tertiary education and surround the present quality claim of tertiary education institutions with doubt. This paper examines politics and quality of tertiary education in Nigeria. The study exposes the diverse political intrigues that surround Nigerian tertiary education and the dire effects of these intrigues on the quality of tertiary education in the country. The study finds that based on these political intrigues, tertiary education is now among the fast deteriorating sectors in the country. The study however offers epistemic and valuable solutions to the waning quality of tertiary education in the country. The paper then concludes that Nigerian tertiary education can be qualitative again when successive governments adequately fund education sector, monitor implementation of tertiary education policies and ensure tertiary education autonomy and staff motivation.

Introduction

Politics everywhere shapes and controls tertiary education policies, systems and programmes. This is evident in the staffing, funding, decision making, policy formulation and implementation that surround tertiary education sector. Tertiary education is driven by politics played by education Stakeholders and those in Government (Ozochi, 2008). As such, tertiary education cannot be said to enjoy autonomy despite the purported management control claimed by tertiary education institutions over school activities and the academic calendar (Omoike & Ogunu, 2007). This reality was understood by both Plato and Aristotle; hence their earlier concern about the interrelated effects of education and politics as social institutions (Stumpf, 1994). This relationship notwithstanding, many nations still draw a strong line on where politics must end in order to pave way for professionalism in educational practice. This important line is presently not drawn in Nigerian tertiary education sector despite Government’s acceptance of the importance of tertiary education in national development (FRN, 2004). Obviously, there are ongoing political intrigues in the tertiary education sector, and these intrigues are consistently leading to unsavory educational practices that currently weaken the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria. For instance, the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria is indeed on a gradual decline whether in terms of input, process, output or learning environment. The evidences of these deterioration according to Aladegbola & Jaiyeola (2016) are obvious in the “lack of adequate infrastructure, high rate of school dropouts, mass failures in external examinations, brain drain of lecturers and students, perennial industrial actions by various unions” in the tertiary education sector.

The political intrigues influencing the quality of Nigerian tertiary education is both internal and external. Referring to the external aspect, Abiogu and Enemuo (2007) observed that Nigerian leadership politicks with tertiary education sector and treats it as “no man’s land, where every old woman plants mushroom anyhow”. This reaction is propelled by Government’s compensation of cronies who have no business in education with important tertiary education offices. Chinweuba (2018) thus revealed that despite the fact that tertiary education is the most vital tool and pivotal drive for optimum development, the attention Nigerian Government is paying to quality education is consciously minimal. This is evident in the paltry budgetary allocation and poor funding of tertiary education coupled with neglect of the needs of tertiary education institutions (Ewelu, 2005). The impact of this is glaring in the dilapidating facilities in these institutions and the low morale of the Staffers of tertiary education institutions. Thus, there is a geometric growth in the number of poor quality but “certified graduates” whose contribution to national development is pragmatically minimal.

The impact of external politics notwithstanding, the politics surrounding the internal operations and mechanisms of tertiary education institutions stand as the ‘last straw breaking the Carmel’s back’. At this level, nasty politics is visible among administrators of tertiary education in their clamour for and to retain their candidates. Some of these administrators of tertiary education institutions, lower the quality of their programmes to satisfy their students and still deprive their students and institutions of adequate and skilled manpower and expected standard in order to achieve egoistic and financial ends. As such, the purported worthiness of tertiary education in the country appears to be mere ruse lacking substantial prove. With the fast deterioration of quality in the sector, Nigerian tertiary education is at the moment suffering quantum set-backs and plunging into a state of comatose. The National University Commission (NUC) in Okebukola (2002) admits this state of affairs reporting that tertiary education in Nigeria is performing below expectation. Consequently, well-to-do families are now sending their wards outside the country to acquire quality tertiary education while patriotic Nigerians are calling for full autonomy, Government funding, supervision  and provision of the needs of tertiary education in the country.

Conceptual Analysis

The major concepts in this treatise are politics and quality of tertiary education. Although the word “politics” came from the Greek word “polis” which means city, city-state, state or society, it has acquired new meanings because of the changing political environments and crafty plots associated with the word in present time. The word “politics”, connotes political intrigues which involve plots by stakeholders to achieve their sinister ends. The word “politics” also incorporate decision making regarding how a society and its diverse sectors should be, as well as when, how, why and who should determine what is to be done (Elijah & Ette, 2018). Therefore, politics is the exercise of power within a geographical area.

In addition, politics is also understood as the “scramble for authoritative allocation of power, influence and resources in a given political entity” (Aguba, 2006:159). In congruence with this meaning, Enminue (2001) refered to politics as the struggle for power which enables the possessor to determine what policies a group or state should carry out. These meanings thus point to politics as corroborating the entire tussle which precede and surround any decision of government (Jouvenel, 1957). As such, politics is associated with running a government or an organization; it indeed refers to governance which involves authoritative allocation of resources and values (Magstadt, 2009). It is as well the totality of the activities of government and its workings which meddle with every sector of the society (Appadorai, 2004). By implication, politics impacts direly on the quality of Nigerian tertiary education because of the political intrigues characterizing social relations and administrations in the education sector.                 

Quality of tertiary education however points to the accuracy, excellence and superior grade of the programmes, facilities and environments of tertiary education. These programmes are the contents of the curriculum, extra-curricular and extra-mural/extension activities that subsists in tertiary education. The quality of tertiary education is also visible in its ability to achieve the goals of tertiary education. Such goals include training a high level relevant skilled manpower and contributing to sustainable national development (FRN, 2004). Quality of tertiary education is therefore the superior and adequate grade of tertiary education programmes that guarantee proper values and full development of the intellectual capacity of students for human self-reliance and societal survival.

Quality of tertiary education also extends to the accuracy, excellence and superior grade of the means of imparting educational contents or programmes. As such, it points to the adequacy and superior level of students and staff research, development programmes, generation and dissemination of knowledge and access to educational needs.  The quality of tertiary education thus includes the presence of accurate, superior, adequate, effective and efficient instructional materials, teaching and learning process, supervision of instructions, adequate learning environment and funding of teaching and learning processes. It also extends to intensification, diversification and improvement of tertiary educational programmes and facilities, incorporation of professional courses and use of adequate, efficient and improved facilities, methods and techniques of teaching in tertiary education. In this quality, teachers in professional fields are prone to relevant industrial and professional experiences.

Politics of Quality Facilities

Availability of adequate quality educational facilities is an important feature of quality tertiary education. Facilities are the required human and material resources in the school system that enable teachers perform their instructional functions and enhance students’ better understanding of subjects being taught (Etuk, 2007). Sadly, availability of educational facilities in Nigerian public tertiary education sector is generally politicized. This is because it is surrounded by political intrigues involving schemes by stakeholders to achieve their sinister ends. Thus, contracts; infrastructural development and recruitment of staff within the public tertiary institutions are now subject to political intrigues and maneuvers in favour of politicians and their loyalists. Based on this, these contracts are often undone or haphazardly done. Sinister politics also surround Government budgetary allocation and funding of the education sector. Congruently, Iseolorunkanmi, Rotimi, Adebola, Lawal, Nweke & Adebis (2021) hold that “the budgetary allocation to the education sector in Nigeria over the years has been below the UNESCO minimum benchmark. In comparative terms with other African countries, many smaller countries in Africa spend more on education than Nigeria”. Consequently, what we see today are inadequate and poor facilities as well as poor maintenance culture that now put pressure on the existing facilities; leading to poor learning and inability of the school administrators to perform their management tasks (Etuk, 2007).

Worst still, days are gone when recruitment of staff are publicized in the media. Recruitment of potential staff is now politically induced. Along with this is the Government appointment of political officers to man different parastatals and establishments in tertiary education sector. Congruently, Abiogu (2010) documented that “education ministry and its agencies, either at the federal or state level or both, are being manned by lawyers or medical Doctors, or by political thugs or someone whose professional inclination does not have relevance to education”. Onwurah (2007) in agreement alleges that lawyers and freshmen from schools who lack experience and expertise are also appointed into sensitive tertiary education positions. With these personnel who have no business in education, Nigerian tertiary education is now considered as a “no man’s land, where every old woman plants mushroom anyhow” (Abiogu & Enemuo, 2007:36). Despite this, Nigerian tertiary education is not only poorly staffed but understaffed.

The politics of quality facilities is not however absent in private tertiary education institutions. Most of these institutions lack adequate and quality facilities needed for quality education. And because most of the administrators of these institutions are politically connected, the deficiency of their tertiary institutions is often overlooked by regulatory bodies. Indeed, the political intrigues going on in the education sector is largely the rationale behind the endless establishment of new tertiary institutions in the country. Adewole (2001) remarks that this politically induced increment in the number of tertiary institutions in the country is not however in tandem with the absorptive capacity of the economy; hence Government’s poor funding and neglect of the needs that guarantee quality in the tertiary education sector. Such needs are adequate funding of tertiary education, prompt payment of salaries and arrears, direct teaching, excess work load and research costs as well as due promotion of staff (Okebukola, 2002). Based on political intrigues, these new tertiary education institutions are endlessly established without minding the poor economy that cannot guarantee their adequate funding. And when eventually there is funding, only poor percentage of the country’s budget goes to tertiary education sector (Ewelu, 2005). Yet, only a minute part from this yearly paltry education budget gets to the classrooms of tertiary institutions (Dike, 2003).

Hindering the quality of tertiary education is also Government policies that incapacitate the statutes establishing tertiary education institutions in order to garner total conformity of the management and administrators of tertiary education institutions (Awe & Ajadi, 2010). Assessing these educational policies, Aladegbola and Jaiyeola (2016) contend that they have brought Nigeria into “a situation of ‘one leg forward, two legs backward’ as far as achieving qualitative education” is concerned. Often, these Government policies carry draconian sanctions like the ‘no work no pay’ that was meted on Academic Staff of Nigerian Universities (ASUU) after their 2022 eight months industrial action against the poor funding of Nigerian Universities and academia financial remuneration. Indeed, the politics played by Government in collaboration with tertiary education administrators deprives tertiary education institutions the right of setting their own goals in consistent with the interpretation of quality assurance (Awe & Ajadi, 2010).

The prevailing “quota system”, “federal character” and “catchment area system” in Nigerian tertiary education are also politics that have continued to deteriorate the quality of tertiary education in the country (Abiogu, 2010:29). Of course, these politically induced practices in tertiary institutions are in contrast with the objective reality expected of tertiary education in the global world.

Politics in or of Tertiary Education

Politics and political intrigues in tertiary education are multifaceted. It starts with politics of bureaucracy among internal stakeholders. The players pose quality assurance and improvement of school programmes as their objectives, yet the aim of most of these stakeholders is to remain relevant in the general scheme of things. Worst, most of these stakeholders have limited knowledge of the realities in the classroom and the educational changes in the modern world. Too, many of them have even lost touch with vibrant staff that work daily on the implementation end of tertiary education programmes. Yet, these stakeholders are the controllers of school facilities, programmes and systems. Consequently, most of the ratings and politicking of these internal stakeholders fell short of the realities on ground. They politicize the realities in tertiary education institutions and even make coated reports to deceive the monitoring commissions and the public. Based on this, Okebukola (2002) in” Awe and Ajadi (2010) expressed concern over the good rating of the quality of teaching by most Vice-Chancellors in Nigerian Universities” and states “that such ratings could not have been an objective assessment in view of the rarity in the use of visual aids such as overhead projectors during lectures”.

Administrators’ intrigues in tertiary education also cut across adding and dropping of courses, modification of curricula, according elective and optional status to courses, recruitment, withdrawing and suspending of staff services without valuable reasons. Along this lane, internal appointments, staff duties, responsibilities, teachers’ orientations/retraining and information that guarantee quality assurance are often politicized, manipulated or abandoned. Similar politics is also played in the allotment of periods to courses and prompt release of teaching time tables. Internal politics also encapsulates the admission of new students.  Nnamani (2009) testifies that due to this internal politics in tertiary education institutions, some of these students are admitted few weeks to the end of the academic semester. This then leaves lecturers with too short a time to make any meaningful impact on them.  In all these, programmes that boost the quality of education like colloquia, seminars, workshops and symposia are too politicized; hence inadequate pride of place is given to them in the school programme.

Administrators of most tertiary education institutions also politicize the teaching processes. With this politics, staffing of tertiary institutions has for long remained inadequate despite the available qualified manpower in Nigerian society. Indeed, “inadequate facilities both human and material” have been an impediment to quality tertiary education programme as “repair or expansion of old facilities face lack of fund” (Okeke. & Osuala, 2016:29). Obuasi (2011) however regrets this discouraging action of tertiary education administrators towards staffing of tertiary education because of its hindrance of seminar and lecture character of courses, and opts that course lecturers supposed to have less number of students in order to achieve effectiveness. Because of understaffing, teaching processes in most tertiary education institutions are now managed with part time and adjunct lecturers. This type of politicized management with hit-and-run type of teaching has not truly sufficed for the enormous importance of permanent quality lecturers (Obuasi, 2011). This is more so as most of these part time and adjunct lecturers hardly show up for duties. Still, not all lecturers borrowed by some of these tertiary education institutions to augment the few permanent staff are qualified, qualitative, willing and devoted. This hinders their performance and the quality of tertiary education sector in Nigeria which now appears as dumping grounds for poor academics.

Apart from these, Nigerian federal constitution allows for private sector participation in the establishment and management of tertiary education in the country. Yet, there is poor monitoring and supervision of the programmes and activities of these private tertiary education institutions by the appropriate commissions. As such, these private institutions that are more of business ventures with little or no qualitative facilities and academic programmes lord it over public tertiary institutions for candidates. The administration and operation of most of these private tertiary institutions is indeed replete with machinations to discredit public tertiary institutions in order to snatch candidates from them. Okundare, Solaja and Soyewo (2013) add that these private tertiary education institutions even embark on “circumvention of standards in the name of profits, among others” and calls for “government regulation of tuition fee in both public and private institutions, mandatory entrepreneurial studies for undergraduates, guide against gender, religious and academic qualification discrimination, restoration of rigor and commitment in Nigerian tertiary institutions”. Display of these intrigues in private and even public tertiary education institution has indeed degenerated to a situation where tertiary education administrators plot to admit more students than others basically because the number of intakes determines the financial acquisition of these administrators.

Politics of Tertiary Education Commissions and Quality Assurance

The commissions responsible for the quality of the three main tertiary education institution in Nigeria are three. They are the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), National University Commission (NUC) and National Board for Technical Education (NBTE). These agencies are meant to advise the federal government on guaranteeing quality of tertiary education and to ensure this quality through their regular monitoring and supervision of programmes in the tertiary education institutions. These commissions also regulate public and private tertiary education in the country and accredit their programmes. The commissions are however not only charged with ensuring quality but quality assurance in tertiary education institutions based on international best practices. The commission therefore demand accountability from tertiary education institutions and check the overall effectiveness and efficiency of programmes and activities the in tertiary education. These commissions also set the minimum standards regarding qualification of teachers, quality of teaching, number of students to be admitted and the carrying capacities of tertiary education institutions. As a way of improving quality, these commission regularly “monitor the activities of tertiary education institutions and conduct a need assessment exercise” (Asiyai, 2015:67).

Sadly, these commissions are now more of political organizations and compromised groups in their accreditations of departments and approval of school programmes. Worst, these commissions are now outlets through which successive government politics bear on tertiary education institutions. This is more so as membership of these commissions are politicized by those in Government. Thus, members of these commissions are more of politicians selected by those in government to serve their interest in the tertiary education sector.

Obviously, the politicized activities of these commissions and the intrigues displayed by their members during accreditations and supervisions of tertiary education institutions reduce the quality of tertiary education in the country. Ab initio, these commissions even politicized the structuring of tertiary education sector in a way it did not address the economic, social and cultural needs of the people (Ozochi, 2008:147). As such, Nigerian tertiary education seems not to have relevance as its curriculum lacked sensitivity to the values, beliefs, norms, tradition, aesthetics, science and technology, art and religion of the people. Besides, the politics of these commissions reflects in their arbitrary adoption and removal of courses and course contents without adequate consultation. Adversely, these commissions also merge courses; thereby making the merger loose essential contents and forms. “Along this lane, some courses are being struck off on the claim of being hindrances to specialisation of students in their academic fields” (Chinweuba, 2021:183). As such, many of the incorporated courses in Nigeriantertiary education “consist of topics that hardly inculcate the anticipated critical thinking, broad knowledge, skills, methods, practical know-how and approaches required for learners’ competence and performance in the work environment” (Chinweuba, 2021:182.). Indeed, contents of such affected courses are not largely programmed instructions and they are replete with introductory, shallow or less important topics. Consequently, they yield little or no positive educational outcome.

Politics and the Quality of Tertiary Education in Nigerian Milieu

With the recurrent politics and political machinations in the education sector, the question that the bugs rational mind revolves on whether Nigerian tertiary education is qualitative at present. This probe is apt as the acclaimed quality of Nigerian tertiary education has become vague and indeterminate in the programmes and products of these tertiary institutions. As such, the poor quality of tertiary education in present time has been rather glaring.

The manifestation could be seen in the shrinking government funding on education, decaying and lack of infrastructure. The perennial challenges of the Nigerian education sector include infrastructural decay and deficit, inadequate funding of research endeavours and poor   remuneration of the university workers. Ise Olorunkanmi, et al, 2021:1).

Deteriorating this quality more is the scheme in the practice of “quota system”, “federal character” and “catchment area” in admission and recruitment of staff in the tertiary education sector (Abiogu, 2010: 29). The machinations replete in these political practices deprive tertiary education sector of coherent philosophical onions or tenets for effective and quality education practice. Resultantly, there has been geometric increase in the percentage of graduates whose abilities are narrow, and their impacts on societal development are pragmatically minimal (Chinweuba & Ezeugwu, 2018).

Indeed, the impact of politics in tertiary education sector is now glaring in the poor funding of the sector, poor infrastructures, physical facilities and resource personnel. This is so as the absorptive capacity of the federal and state economy is now unable to carry weight of these needs in the increasing tertiary education institutions (Adewole, 2001).  This incapacity of the economy is indeed among the very reasons why ASUU is kicking against proliferation of tertiary education institutions by Government. Students are now overcrowded in the available classrooms, researches are not sponsored and teachers’ salaries and emoluments are delayed. These create stress and aggression while hanging outside for teaching and learning creates obscene pictures around the school premises. The quality of instructional resources in Nigerian tertiary institutions has indeed been identified as part of the constraint to quality academic programmes in the country (Awe & Ajadi, 2010).          

Due to prevalent politics and politicking, the tertiary education sector now gives rise to graduates who are poorly prepared and less equipped for the task of adequate comprehending and evaluating realities. Absence of quality education therefore deprives students the acquisition of lasting philosophical insight required to excel in life. Consequently, there is a gross disconnection between learning and practice among many Graduates who now face the difficulties of how to reason correctly and competitively and applying philosophical approach to dynamic existential conditions. The poor education sector is indeed producing uncritical and illogical graduates who are incapable of critical thinking and psychic abstraction that generate essential ideas that leads to problem solving, innovation and self-reliance (Chinweuba, 2018).

With the geometric rise in poorly educated graduates is also a corresponding rise in unseasoned, irrational and uncritical population; citizens who are incapable of initiating valuable ideas and sustaining Nigerian society. Unfortunately, it is in the knowledge of this that Ekpo (2014) remarks that a great percentage of our schools are unskilled and cannot gainfully contribute meaningfully to their self-development nor societal development. Consequently, transformation and sustenance of Nigerian society has largely remained a dream.

Amidst the political intrigues and poor quality state of Nigerian tertiary education institutions is conspicuous low incentives for academic staff. As such, the best brains expected to be at the centre of quality school programmes are not often attracted to teaching profession in the country. The reality in many Nigerian tertiary institutions is that many of the teachers are not professionals; but rather “deficient in learning and character” (Ozochi, 2008:191). This is more so as teaching profession in tertiary institutions now appear more to be the last resort to people who could not find their desired job. This trend is deepened by the insufficient recruitment of not so quality teaching staff in the tertiary education sector. This is part of the reason behind the inability of these teachers to properly manage academic programmes. For apart from educational structures, the quality of staff is an important determinant and factor in the quality of tertiary education. As such, the poor quality of Nigerian tertiary education merely confirms the fact no education can rise above the quality of its teachers.

Rescuing tertiary education from the present conundrum and clutches of politics has indeed led to incessant industrial actions by organized tertiary education workers’ unions. The implication of this is that tertiary education workers in Nigeria; especially the academia are demoralized with attendant consequences on the academic pursuit of students. Some of these students would have to spend longer period than the expected record time. Some do abandon their programmes because of frustration they face due to incessant industrial disputes in the tertiary education sector while others look for an alternative. According to Iseolorunkanmi, et al (2021),

the consequence of government’s refusal to hearken to the demands of the lecturers are passed to the students…apart from   the   incessant   industrial  actions  that  do  truncate academic process, whenever   the   academic   activities resume, students are made to bear  the  brunt  of the failed negotiation.

Industrial action of tertiary education organized unions is however counterproductive as it shortens the academic year, reduces staff expertise in education services and shuts down teaching and learning process.

Towards the Sustenance of Quality Tertiary Education in Nigeria

The sustenance of quality tertiary education in Nigeria has to begin with motivation of staff through provision of incentives, infrastructures and facilities necessary for quality teaching and learning processes. Availability of these calls for adequate funding of tertiary education, precedence of tertiary education statutes and autonomy of tertiary education institutions. This autonomy would help in taking care of Government policies that have no bearing on the quality assurance of tertiary education. With these on ground, the staff would be very much encouraged to improve the quality of instructions which has to be structured more at the unit and departmental levels where academic staff communicate more with students (Awe & Ajadi, 2010). Along this lane should be Government biannual close assessment of quality of programmes, instructions, teaching and learning environment through the academic staff of tertiary education. Aminu (1986) accents to the necessity of this assessment opining that tertiary institutions are communities capable of engaging in self-assessment and self improvement because their staff are the primary witnesses of the changes in the school environment. More so, the lecturers and the academia are professionals in their given disciplines, instructional experts who plans, guides, and evaluates students’ learning; hence their importance in every assessment of quality of programmes, instructions, teaching and learning environment

Besides, there is great need to activate the internal and external mechanisms for quality assurance of tertiary education in the country. Such mechanisms like the bicameral governance of the Senate and Council of tertiary education institutions should be encouraged in the tertiary education sector. As indicated in the tertiary education statute, the Senate and Council should be encouraged to exercise their power over the organization and control of programmes and activities in the tertiary education institutions. The Senate and Council should as well burden the task of encouraging fair admission, prompt promotion and discipline in the tertiary education sector. Indeed, a strong line must be drawn on where politics must end in order to pave way for professionalism in education practice. This will ensure the academic freedom of teachers, reverse the “fall of academic performance and standard of education” and encourage teachers to impart broad range knowledge needed in the work environment.

Along this lane, NUC, NBTE and NCCE should be encouraged to do their works objectively towards ensuring the quality of tertiary education in the country. To foster quality in tertiary education therefore, the Senate, Council, NUC, NBTE and NCCE that serve as watchdogs of different tertiary education need a paradigm shift from mere accreditation czars to strong quality initiation and control architects. This will redirect the functioning of tertiary education in Nigeria to a height where its quality would be assured.

To be true, what matters is not increasing the number of tertiary education institutions but the quality of instructions, programmes and entire teaching and learning environment. As such, Nigerian Government, education ministries, Commissions and Parastatals should pay much attention to the improvement of quality facilities; infrastructures, personnel, teaching, learning and research in tertiary education institutions. This quality can be enhanced through adequate funding of tertiary education, granting the demands of tertiary education organized unions and larger autonomy to tertiary education institutions, availability of accessible research grants, supervision of instructions, regular and prompt payment of staff, and training and retraining of tertiary education staff.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The study examines the diverse kinds of internal and external politics surrounding Nigerian tertiary education sector. The study finds that these political intrigues gear towards egoistic ends and deprive Nigerian tertiary education institutions of their expected qualities. The study contends that because of these sinister politics; government, tertiary education administrator and stakeholders have not shown any commitment to the demands of the academia and tertiary education systems in the country. As such, tertiary education is fast collapsing in the country.

Quality tertiary education however prevails in countries where politics surrounding education sector is devoid of egoistic ends. To check this end, Government of many countries makes laws that favour the education sector; prevent infringement on education rights and supervise programmes, instruction and education environment. These tasks are what Nigerian Government has neglected over the years. As such, not much care is given about where politics must end to give room to professionalism. This conundrum is exacerbated by unavailability of adequate quality facilities and minimal Government funding in the sector. The result is now poor quality tertiary education where poorly taught students are graduated.

Today, Nigerian tertiary education sector is largely under the control of Government which cares little about education. This Government cares less about marching her education proposals and blue prints with action. As such, the teachers are treated anyhow, infrastructures are poorly maintained and students are not motivated to learn. The politicians and judiciary make the situation worse by defending those in Government whose academic claims are in doubt. Indeed, tertiary education sector in Nigeria is now among the sectors with fast dilapidating quality. Unless something is urgently done to reverse the trend in the education sector and then reform and reposition the sector, tertiary education would completely loose its quality.  

Since the quality of tertiary education can be guaranteed through collaborative action, the study recommends that the different stakeholders of tertiary education should shun egoistic politics and adhere to the standards of achieving quality. These standards are the ideals of inputs, processes; environment and outputs (outcome) which must not be politicized. Along this lane, Nigerian Government should in her developmental plan and budget allocation give greater attention and top priority to the education sector. Moreover, Government and tertiary education administrator should ensure conducive environment for quality teaching and learning. They should also address the problem of tertiary education tagged unskilled manpower through provision of quality teaching and learning facilities and equipment. Along with these should be complete overhaul of instructional delivery approach through the professional training and retraining of lecturers.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This paper examined the issue of autonomy in the context of administrative functions, principles and roles needed for the formulation, implementation and execution of policies in higher institution for the purpose of harnessing stated goals and objectives of the University.  The implementation of the administrative functions in Nigeria public Universities has been marred and underpinned by inevitable educational issues. Such factors are: interpersonal relationships within the University, failure on the part of administrative head to meet stipulated programme achievement amongst others. Administrative formation existing in the Universities (despite differences in structure) according to Federal State or Private ownership as applicable to Nigeria focused on the principal officers and bodies who perform the administrative function were also theorized. Several views on autonomy as a concept were also examined and the paper concludes that there are benefit derivable from autonomy, if healthy administrative responsibilities in the University be achieved. Hence the paper recommends that University administration must be free to air out the result of findings from research without fear of backlash; promotion of university culture on merit and fairness be encouraged, reduction of the perennial tensions that allows a fair play level ground for the smooth running of academic activities be encouraged, clashes and strikes between government and University hierarchy manipulation could be resolved through round table discussion involving all stakeholders when Universities allowed to design their own programs, empower to create and execute them they will be morally bound to ensure all activities within the institutions succeed.

Keywords: University, Administrative, Responsibilities and Autonomy.

Introduction

Higher education in today modern world has become a commodity marketed across border with multiple providers at national and international level with scope of administrative practice especially administrative style that are needed for qualitative education and workforce capacity building for the advancement of productivity. Madumere (2008) posited the world has become aware of the fact that the higher education (university) is one of the main source of the knowledge that contributes so much to development and modernity. Knowledge production, dissemination and its absorption by any society makes all the difference between a rich country and a poor one or even between a rich home and a poor home Infact provision of various level of education is usually being determined by the funding and resources allocation assigned thereof. In Nigeria, the Federal Government has been the main financier of public higher education until very recent when states higher institution sprang up. Notably, the states governments are responsible for financing and staffing of the institution under their control based on the constitutional arrangement, hence education becomes the responsibility of the Federal, State Private Ownership.

Invariably, the nature of higher education makes it capital intensive and as such the country higher education like the university needs a properly planned, organized and administration function in the context of political, social and economic design for its development. This is because a nation ideology which has beeninfluenced by thepolitics and social affairs of her society has affected the education pattern and thereby in turn affects the economic growth of both the people and the society. Denison, Schultz and Vaisey in Madumere(2008) posited that the economy of any nation depends on how well her education has been planned and the results of her planning process. Hitherto, the planning process includes the setting up of goals to the implementation stage, taking into consideration whatever models that need be applied and timing. Obviously, the bulk of a nation professionals and technocrats’ workforce are produce by the university. This require a well experience qualified university administrator who is well verse in administrative functions that are needed for qualitative excellence and that which will bring about quality in research teaching, science and technology.  These are all hubs in which a nation technological advancement rely upon among others in ensuring qualitative education.

The functions and role perform by an administrator in the university must from time, to time in the view of Madumere (2008) be advantageous for efficiency. This also implies that planning and administrative roles in the university must be unique, unique in the sense that there is no formal system in the society or a nation that does not depends on education. Obviously, all other formal system or formal organization of any society depend on products from education especially products from higher education like the university for their functioning and effectiveness. Evidently there is anti-productivity these days, which therefore necessitate the need to harmonize the required administrative function, and roles for the purpose of achieving stated goals and objectives in ensuring qualitative education. The administrative functions in this regards include planning, organizing, reporting, directing, staffing, communicating, controlling coordinating, budgeting.

The Issues

The implementation of the administrative functions/roles in Nigerian public universities has been marred and underpinned by some inevitable educational issues that have great effect in the provision and sustainability of qualitative education at the Ivory Tower.  Such underpinning factors are:

• Interpersonal relationships within the university system
• Failure on the part of the administrative head to meet stipulated programme achievement
• Failure to build and lead the team of staff for efficiency
• Inability to charge workers and work relationship toward productivity goals that are needed for sustainability of qualitative education.

Kneitner (2017) identified that in any administration, efforts to work effectively with and through others in the organization are usually marred by factors, such as manipulation, abusive, untrustworthy, undue-demands, over critical attitude, poor team playing, poor communications etc. Nigerian public university as a formal organization is often been confronted with aforementioned, political power will and wishes, how to strike the proper balance between the universities and governments, how to address tensions between a reasonable accountability of the university public funds that are needed for sustainability  on one hand and the abilities of the university administrators to take key decisions on the other hand. Also the question on how proper are the universities given autonomy to pursue what they are best known for(teaching & training, research, innovation and development) to mention among others.

Afe-Babalola (2014) affirmed that a complex paradox and dialectic faced by many university “is the challenge of how to balance university autonomy and freedom with public accountability and transparency”. Hence, … some practical suggestion on how goals, objectives, administrative functions and role can be appropriately balanced to achieve a high quality university system in Nigeria become paramount and worrisome to the university administrator. A look at the administrative and implementation will help in positioning Nigeria public universities in the context of positivism that are needed for enhancing qualitative education of the university.

Conceptual Clarification of Administrative formation in the Universities

In the view of Olarenwaju (2018) (2020) administrative formation and mode of operation of universities in Nigeria differs and depends to some extent on their stated institutional objectives, the orientation of their Proprietor(s), and the university area of specialization if any.

University Administrative Structure

Etymologically, the structure and operational details of the university are usually clearly stated in document which is enacted into law or policy document of the university by the federal government or state government as required by the constitution as the case may be. In the Enabling Law or Decrees, governance structure of the university is well spelt including the university authority (administrative) power, and responsibilities, limitations to such power and authority of each of the organs and officers of the university are clearly stated. It is essential to state that despite the differences in the administrative control of the university (Federal or State, or Private owned) there are many communal areas in the administration of the Nigerian university.

According to Olarenwaju (2018) (2020), Universities are either organized in the Collegiate, School or Faculty systems. However, many Nigerian universities function through the following officers and bodies.

Visitor

Chancellor

Pro-Chancellor

Governing Council

Vice-Chancellor and other Principal officers.

Senate

Congregation and Convocation

Colleges/Schools/Faculties/Departments

Hitherto, the functions, duties and responsibilities of the aforementioned officers and bodies give members of the Council the feel of how a university operates. Notably, the visitor to the university is usually the head of the organization that own the institution (Mr. President in the case of Federal Universities and the Governor, for state-owned). The visitor sometimes, do not fully involved in the administration process of the institution, but has the responsibility of ordering a periodic review of the operations of the institution this responsibility is known as visitation.

 The Chancellor, is the titular or ceremonial head of the university He awards the degrees of the institution at convocation ceremonies when he is present. Olarenwaju (2018)(2020) posited that the Chancellor could either be a revered traditional rulers or an accomplished senior citizen.

The Pro-Chancellor is the chairman of the Governing Council and as well head some committees of Council such as finance and general purposes committees and Tenders Board and he is more directly involved with the operation of the institution than either the Visitor or Chancellor. He plays a critical role and function in the university council he leads. Amadi (2011) points out that the Pro-chancellor takes precedence before all other members of the university except the Chancellor, and except the Vice-Chancellor when acting as Chairman of congregation or convocation and except the Deputy-Vice- Chancellor when so acting, and the Pro-Chancellor shall, when he is present, be the chairman of all meetings of the Council.The Pro-Chancellor is appointed by the Head of State for a period of four years. Mere political jobbery should not be the main yardstick since some of those who came in through party patronage have failed woefully because they were unwilling to understand the ethos of the university system. The amended University Act details stated that the Pro-Chancellors appointment is usually on the recommendation of the Council. There is no specific qualification for an appointment to the post of Pro-Chancellor.This implies that previous, experience in university administration do not really serve as criterion for appointment, nevertheless retired Professor or former Vice-Chancellor have occupied the post on many occasions.

The Governing Council is another administrative ambit of the university which consists of those appointed by the proprietor(s) usually from outside the institution representing public interest, ex-officio members and those elected from the university representing senate and congregation. Noteworthy, the criteria for membership of the Governing Council according to Amadi (2011), are; membership should have good representative of the community in which the institution is located, members must be knowledgeable about administration of higher education, members must be open and transparent in decision making, membership should be of people who are willing to contribute in a regular and effective ways to the business of the Governing Council. The duties of the Governing council includes; the development of the strategic plan for the institution; ensuring that government, institutional and community priorities are adequately reflected in the plan, also ensure that the institution is appropriately organised, managed and adequately resourced; putting in place a satisfactory quality assurance, financial and audit arrangements, closely monitoring students’ enrolment, retention and achievement as well as being supportive of general welfare and development of all staff and;responsible for appointment, development and appraisal of the senior staff in the higher institution (University).

Olarenwaju (2018) (2018) summarily posited that the Council is charged with the general control and superintendence of the policy, finance and property of the university including its public relations. The council is therefore regarded as the supreme governing authority of higher education.

The Vice-Chancellor by function is the Chief Executive and Academic Head of the University. Olarenwaju (2018)  noted that the Vice-Chancellor is responsible for the day-to-day managerial role of the institution. He/she and other very highly placed officers of the institution, such as the Deputy Vice-Chancellor(s), Registrar, Bursar, and University librarian are supposedly collaborate in the running of the affair of the university. Amadi (2011) stated the Vice-Chancellor and other principal officers of the university are vested by law with the general function of directing the activities of the institution for which purpose they are advised and assisted by the Deputy Vice-Chancellor(s) and other principal officers.The Vice-Chancellor significantly is an ordinary member of the council, while the Pro-Chancellor is the Chairman of the Council. Admittedly, while Pro-chancellor is on a par-time appointment, most of the policies of the Council are normally carried out by the Vice-Chancellor and his staff.  Notably,while the Vice-Chancellor is appointed by the visitor on the recommendations of Council, the other Principal officers are appointed by Council on the recommendations of  the Senate and other bodies with the authority to do so.

The senate: This accordingly serves as the supreme body on academic matters. The formulation of academic policies, including the organisation and control of all academic activities of the higher education (university) is the duty and responsibility of the senate. Olarenwaju (2018) mentioned, that the Senate is charged with the responsibility of initiating and supervising courses of studies and organizing as well as controlling teaching, the admission and discipline of students and the promotion of research. The Senate is presided over by the Vice Chancellor as the chairman while Professors and heads of various academic units make up its membership in either Collegiate or faculty structure in the university. The Vice-Chancellor, the two Deputy Vice-Chancellors, Deans of either faculties or Colleges, Heads of Departments, Director of Institute Centre, all Professors, the University Librarian and member of academic staff elected by the faculties or congregation or those appointed by the Chief Executive as specified in the university Act, in this regard it is by the authority of the senate that the Chancellor, or in his absence, the Vice-Chancellor awards the degrees of the university to deserving students at convocations as such degrees are only awarded after the formal approval by Senate.

Congregation and Convocation: Amadi (2011) stated that congregation is the general assembly of all graduate members of the university staff, both academic and non-academic. Statutorily, the Vice–Chancellor is its chairman and the congregation has the general function of serving as a forum for discussing any higher education problem or issue and making recommendations to Council and Senate on which two bodies it is represented. On the other hand, the convocation is the assemblage of the staff and students of the university, constituted usually for the purpose of award of degrees and diplomas as approved by the senate.

Colleges/Schools/Faculties/Departments

Faculty is governed by a Faculty Board, which broadly controls the academic programme of the faculty, subject to senate approval. In order that senate may not be over-burdened by details, a good deal of the functions is delegated to the Faculty Board. The Chairman of the Faculty Board is the Dean who is elected for a specified period of time from among the Professors in the particular Faculty or College depending on the structure operated in the university. Olarenwaju (2018) similarly expresses that Colleges, Schools, Faculties, Departments are academic units which all report to Senate and have different levels of responsibilities, the teaching, learning and research activities of a university are carried out through them. Related schools or faculties makes up a College, while related Departments make up a Faculty. A College is headed by a Provost, a School or Faculty by a Dean, and a Department by a Head. The Departments are the smallest academic units where teaching, learning and research work are carried out usually on the basis of single subject areas in which degrees are awarded, as part of the overall portfolio of a Faculty, School or College of a University. Part of the function of the Dean and the Provost is to present at convocation for the conferment of degrees, persons who have qualified for degrees of higher education at higher education examination held in the various departments within the Faculty or College. Further, there are other statutory organs in the university aside earlier mentioned ones that are also prominent in the internal management  and carried out administrative function’s contributing to the enhancement of quality and standard in the university system. The organs compliment the administrative function of the principal officers and they function side by side for the smooth coordination of both academic, non-academics and material resources in the production, enhancement and achievement of set goals and objectives of the University. To mention We have the following by simple organogram aside the Vice-Chancellor;

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Administration)

Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Academic)

Registrar

Bursar

University Librarian

The Dean of various Faculties or Colleges

The Dean of Students Affairs Division and Unit

Heads of various Department or programme Units. 

All graduates of the university i.e. Alumni Association and undergraduates’ students of the institution.

Interestingly, Altbach (2005) notes that the different models for higher education (Administrative roles) throughout the world do share a common heritage. Similarly, Coldrake, Stedman and Little (2003) in Amadi (2011) expresses that internationally, higher education (university to mention) are governed by differentiated structures of management. We theorized this management structures are the purpose of proper governance of which functionality would not be enhanced without the indices of Autonomy. Autonomy, in relation to internal structure, planning, organizing, reporting, directing, staffing, communicating, controlling, coordinating, budgeting, leading, motivating and decision making. On university function which require proper governancy, Kezar and Eckel (2004) in their analysis stated  that policy formations and decision making in the university require governance in a multi-facet concept and would be recognized with elements of autonomous actors with varying degrees of independence, interdependence and commitment to the external stakeholders, state and national government.

The question which arises from above position on administrative functions and autonomy of the university activities and functionality is if autonomy in higher education is essential to the advancement, transmission and application of knowledge why the violation of procedures for the appointment of the University Vice-Chancellor? Why the erosion of the powers of Council as statutory employer? Why the powers of the Senate as the Supreme organ in proper application and implementation of university administrative functions being eroded? Madumere (2008), Amadi (2011) and Olarenwaju (2018) claimed hindrance on university autonomy are historical and of course inevitable. In the past, universities in Nigeria were to large extent autonomous.The military government in 1973 started what would be called first “threat letter” or “threat signal” to university autonomy. A trade dispute between the Governing Council and the universities teachers in 1973 on the review of the condition of service led to strike by the University Lecturers then. The Governing Council saw the need for the review of the condition of service and made effort to secure government approval, which was thwarted by top official of the Federal Ministry of Education. The crisis reached a height when the then visitor, General Yakub Gowon in a national broadcast ordered the university teachers back to work or face dismissal and ejection from there official residents. Albertly, the mechanism used were as follows:

• The integration of the universities into the civil service, which lowered the prestige, status and effectiveness of the university as the Federal Ministry of Education began to see itself as the ‘Landlord’ of the newly constructed structure;
• Governments promulgation of decrees.After the order and through these decrees, some bodies were empowered in such a way that the activities of the universities hitherto conducted internally by the university without interference became willed to some other bodies.
• Creation of Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB in 1978) eroded the power of universities to determine student intakes and criteria for admission.
• Expansion of scope of operations of National University Commission, (NUC) usurped the power of the university senate to regulate curriculum and syllabus.
• The promulgation of the Decrees 49 of 1998 and 10 of 1993 strengthened NUC’s power and stripped the universities of their power to develop new programmes and made to realign their courses to match labour market requirements except with the approval of NUC;
• The appointment of Sole Administrators to some Universities in Nigeria by the Federal Military Government between 1992 and 1998. The decrees that brought the Sole Administrators to power suspended the power of the council, senate and vice-chancellor and confer these powers on the Sole Administrators;
• The military government in 1975 promulgated decree No 23 of 1975 which back up government to take over the regional universities;
• Decrees which altered the enabling laws, reduced the power of the Governing Council and altered the position of the visitor from being ceremonial to that of someone who can intervene in daily administration of universities;
• decree No 23 of 1975 vested the power to appoint and remove the vice-chancellor by the Head of the Federal Military Government instead of a Joint Committee of council and senate on behalf of university council;
• Decree No 23 of 1975 also eroded the powers of council as statutory employers and erosion of power of the senate as the highest decision making body over academic matters.

Associated with above are external perspectives that have also jeopardized the functionality of the university administrative functions/role for quality to mention there were:

centralization of the universities system by NUC who had metamorphosed from advisory roles to a full pledge commission, exercising supposed internal power of the university management administrative functions thus now; accredit programmes, approve the establishment of department and faculties, insisting on a minimum academic standard, engaging in teaching function of academic staff through the Virtual Institute for Higher Education Pedagogy (VIHEP); undertaking sabbatical placement, assessing academic journals, ranking of universities, evolving a draft curriculum on entrepreneurial studies and of recent the designing  of curriculum (CCMAS) without due involvement of University Academia, centralization of admission which negate the initial plans when the early institutions were established, of that time each institution conducted its entrance examination, council dominancy by government appointed officials to the detriment of minority representation of university community members serves as another avenue of breach of autonomy in the Nigerian Universities.

What can be done to enhance autonomy and sustainability of Administrative Functions ?     

In order to maintain a smooth and itch free functioning of University autonomy and sustain administrative responsibilities in the university. Management of the Ivory Tower supposedly, should function and operate in the following directions:

Administrative Effectiveness and Responsibilities

The Vice-Chancellor as the Chief Executive of the University work with and through other institutional planners, therefore do not do the planning alone nor by himself. He must ensure in the view of Nte(2010) that:

‘objectives, plans, policies, rules, regulations and operating procedures are effectively communicated to the people (member of the university) where performance is needed to attain the set objective’.Interestingly, the chief executive (Vice-Chancellor) should be a good forecaster, whereby he/she is expected to look at the present and compare it with the past to be able to predict the future.

Further, planning as a function of Vice-Chancellor in decision making required that he/she should work with expert/technocrats versatile in planning techniques so as to be able to arrive at good decision among several alternative. Invariably, planning guides the Vice-Chancellor and other administrative heads on what to be done and how to do it, so as to accomplish the set goals after determining in advance what is to be done. Proper planning bridges, the gap between where the tertiary institution (university) is (present status in term of performance) and where it wants to be in a desired future (achievement).

Effective planning by the university management makes it possible for things to occur while making choice among alternative choice. Administrative achievements and accomplishment is determined by the efforts put in place in the institution amidst challenges or internalize problems. Making a balance between human and material needs and institutional objectives, goals becomes imperative for both immediate and future goals of the university. Knowing fully well that planning is the most basic of all the administrative functions of the executive for sustainable qualitative education.

Axiologically, administrative functions in any formal organisation as the case with the university ought to value planning for effective service delivery, therefore, there should be,

• Provision of directions and sense of purposes by the management in the university.
• Proper plans as roadmaps showing the way and giving direction toward operation of activities under acceptable ethics, norms and values.
• Adaptation of the university structure and system to the dynamic environment that accommodate the university. The educational system has to adapt itself to the basic demand of the environment and its constituencies, by attempting to transform the external situation and changing its internal programmes to meet and suit every conditions for the purpose of enhancing sustainable qualitative university education.
• Gratification within the system as a means of goals achievement in the Ivory Tower. Gratification in this sense means reward given for good job, excellent performance this is  a typical indicator of goal attainment for academic achievement, resource acquisition and quality of knowledge given to the students and services delivery.
• Integration of all goals attainment indices needed for sustaining qualitative education as posited in the autonomy objective and should be prioritized; among such are job satisfaction, interpersonal relationship, conflict resolutions, students’ welfare and commitment, moral code and conducts ethics.
• Again, latency in relation to the organization (university) value integrating maintenance and sustainancy for effective qualitative educational system sustainability should be paramount and this require the essence for commitment and appropriate work activities, work environment behaviour on the part of every stakeholder in the organization (university) in relation to the acceptable norms and values that could also enhance autonomy of the Ivory Tower.

Expectedly, the latency indicator for performance should function through loyalty of every member of the university to the system, a promotion of central life interest in the school work, having a sense of identify with and in the institution, there should be individual motivation spirit to work and what Nte (2010) refers to as role norms congruence.

Organizing

From autological perspective, the role of organisation requires truthfulness and reality in the dissemination of functions. An important function of the Vice-Chancellor, is to face reality on ground in term of making purposeful structures for enhancement of rules for workers and directed towards achieving sustenance of qualitative education which can best be derived from real sense of autonomy practices. In the Universities, the Vice-Chancellor as Chief Executive assigned various tasks to different employees, grouping the personnel into sections, divisions, departments, faculties, formalizing the hierarchy chart. Added too, activities to be carried out by the Deans, Professors, Heads of Departments, academic staffs and non-academic staff are cosmologically related and connected. Etymologically, the headship (Vice-Chancellor) help to create a conducive environment for effective performance by personnel in the university who carries out different tasks and coordinated for the purpose of yielding the achievement of the set goals of the university. Recruitment of personnel, deployment, training, departmentalization and delegation of authority for effective functional system require adequate autonomy. In reality, success of the Vice-Chancellor needs conformity with acceptable values because according to NTE (2010), it demands economic use of scarce resources, integrity, justice and fair play, free from external influence.

Achievement of quantitative and qualitative education require high level manpower production that are supportive of desirable and cherished values in the acquisition and development of new knowledge, skills, and attitude which the tertiary institution are known for in teaching, training, instruction, research and manpower production. Worthy of note is the enhancement of personnel growth which is a product of efficiency and effectiveness in performance of staff, enhancement of productivity and reduction of waste.

Again, Controlling and Supervision; as a value laden function, the Vice-Chancellor is saddled with the responsibilities of knowing what is on-going round the faculties, departments, section, units. With supportive roles by the delegated staff (Dean, HOD’s, Director of Directorates, Unit Heads to mention but few), questions such as what is going on here or there, could be asked. Controlling is a sort of supervisory responsibility of the Vice-Chancellor, what often undermine this role is eroding of autonomy concept of the Ivory Tower. As reported by Agbato (1990) in Nte (2010) controlling is most basic critical of all the functions of the Vice-Chancellor, advantage, controlling indicates that actual performance is guided toward set goals. It’s equally involves monitoring of activities to determine whether they conform to planned action. Added, monitoring is done so that events proceed based on the plan and so as to prevent deviation or variances from plans. Purposefully, controlling is used to correct lapses and errors. The Vice-Chancellor along with other principal officers, enforces controlling periodically to effect perfection in performances among personnel working in the institution. In an effort to exercise autonomy principle, the principal officers, as administrators could use the following control mechanism to ensure job performances and productivity such as what is happening here? What is the progress reports on task at hand? Etymologically, controlling as a mechanism is used to measure actual performance as a guide toward predetermined goals. Knowledge of an administrator in controlling helps the management of an organization to provides answers to philosophical questions like; what is going on or what is happening here?

Logically, control;

• probes what targets a leader is striving for,
• helps in ascertaining what the leader in an organization like the university is doing or can do to achieve the set targets.
• helps to determine what changes are required to help performances at expected time and level.
• epistemologically, provides means for knowing what is going on
• ethnically, helps staff to know what targets they have in view
• axiologically it emphasize that what should be controlled are the activities that would have significant impact on the achievement of set objectives and need for remedial action as the case may be, thus emphasize on morality of accountability.

Leading among other functions emphasize that the Vice-Chancellor administrative functions on the need to lead by example. A Vice-Chancellor is a leader of the institution; Nte (2010) reiterated it is incumbent, upon the Vice-Chancellor to lead, influence, induce, inspire other people in the institution. It is a reality that some people must lead and others must follow. The truism in this concept explained in every social organization such as the university, there must be a leader and there must be followers. There are many Professors in the university but the truth and reality is, one person is appointed as the leader of the institution as Vice-Chancellor. Once appointed, he/she becomes a leader and exhibits leadership trait that are transcendentally endowed these are;

• Ascendency; which means he/she is given a higher position than other
• Power; he/she has force backing authority
• Authority; conferred with right as a leader to administer/govern an organisation                    
• Influence; having responsibility to coerce, lobby, influence other to abide by organisation law and order.
• Legal entity; his/her appointment is a provision of law or legal right.
• Legitimacy; The vice-chancellor in this capacity carries out his/her functions based on law, and decision he makes are legitimate decisions.

Communicating, connotes responsibility of sending and receiving information within (internal) and from (external) in an organisation. People, personnel, machine, environment, materials are involving, thus communicating is the most important administrative functions in the university structure and system. Communication metaphorically is the nervous system of a business or organisation. Its goes on all the time in an organisation. In the university, the Vice-Chancellor as the Chief Executive operates a communication network linking subordinates and super ordinates. Nte(2010) in his analytical prowess maintained that communication is a process of exchanging information between two persons or among people. Words, ideas, feelings, emotions, perceptions messages and opinion both official and non-official transmitted and expressed to and from people in an organisation is refers to as communication. Typically, message sent from the Vice-Chancellor which are thus received by any of the principal officers is communication. It can be vertically downward or vertically upward, for instance the Vice-Chancellor communication is vertical downward because his message by way of directive is to the subordinates,and when such communication is vertical upward then it is to super-ordinates like theChairman of the Governing Council of the University.

However, for the purpose of autonomy, knowledge of communication by the Vice-Chancellor will greatly be of immense value because it;

• Contribute to increase in staff productivity when such communication is well send and properly decode by either the super-ordinate or subordinate.
• Brings about efficiency in job activities, each departments, faculty, units in the university harmoniously carrys out assigned responsibilities.
• Helps in reduction and control of resource/material/waste and employees’ efficiency and ability to control the administration of resources.
• Averts labour turn-over.
• Enhances achievement of objectives and goals of the university faster.
• Creates industrial peace and harmony by eliminating rumour and grape vine either in the department or in the faculties.

Motivating: the university functions through the Vice Chancellor, requires the ability of the Vice-Chancellor to essentially motivate his/her subordinate staff so as to enhance good productivity in tune with the university’s goals and objectives. The university employees should be well encouraged either through good remuneration, reward, job satisfaction so as to work for the betterment and purpose of achieving results. Available literature, recorded by Nte (2010) shows that poorly motivated, frustrated and unsatisfied employees can hardly perform to maximum level of their abilities. It is duty bound on the Vice-Chancellor to motivate staff (skill and unskilled) to put up desirable work behaviour to maximize their productivity in the university. Creating a suitable work environment which employees cherish will boost morale and interest of workers to work. The Vice-Chancellor needs to take into account the unique needs, expectation and level of aspiration of individual employees into consideration by so doing there will be a good motivational work climate that can produce maximum result through positive inducement, such as sponsorship, allowances, grants, welfare packages all these will motivate the subordinate internally; exceptional performances should be rewarded too.

The questions which arises at this junction is how best can the administrative functions examined above be realized if there is high tendency of erodement of the university autonomy? Going by the word of Fourie (2004) autonomy is a principle upon which the higher education system normally operates and through which operational stability and actualization of goals of the higher educational institution are ensured. In further engagement the survival of the higher education system is directly proportional to, or to a large extent dependent on the institutionalization of autonomy.In order to accomplish this noble goals (administrative function roles), autonomy must of necessity be enshrined in the system . ASUU had always raised alarm on the sanctity of university autonomy … that state responsibility in the area of university funding notwithstanding ,must not translate into undue government meddling in university affairs(Amadi,2011).

Autonomy, Sustainance of University Administrative Roles  

Fundamentally, administrative function is tied around the concept of planning, organizing controlling, conducting, reputing, directing, leading, budgeting, communicating motivating and others functions. The implementation of the said roles/functions helps in so many ways to maximize goals achievement, high level manpower growth and achievements, reduction of waste and judicious use of available resources. In the university administration,administrative roles enable critical thinking prior to action and decision making, provides pervasive continuous function that involve complex processes of perceptions, analysis, conceptual thought, communication flows, decision and action directed to orienting the Ivory Tower toward the set goals. When all functions are put in place, there is no doubt that enhancement of growth both of human and material resource will leads to efficiency and effectiveness, accountability in all ramifications, and quality education in teaching, learning, training, research, innovation in new ground development and goal attainment will be achieve. These achievements in the view of Amadi (2011:51) is directly proportional to a large extent dependent on the institutionalization of autonomy. Despite all above aspiration it is a known fact that the administrative roles and other functions are regarded as pinnacle for goal attainment and has been marred with undue erodements. From historical perspective contentious and related dispute on university autonomy in Nigeria can be traced back to the 1970s when the sanctuary model of universities in Nigeria, which began with the establishment of the University College (later known as University of Ibadan) came under pressure with military dictatorship, the rest were history nevertheless.

What does Autonomy mean?

Amadi (2011) sees it as a principle upon which the higher education system normally operates and through which operational stability and actualization of goals of the higher educational institution are ensured. Fourie (2004) defines autonomy with reference to institutional autonomy as relative freedom of the institution to conduct its own affairs free from outside interference, whether from the state.

Similarly, Olarenwaju (2018) (2018) expresses the word autonomy is coined from the greek words ‘auto normos’ (auto means self and normos means law). Put together it means to give oneself one’s own law. Explaining further Olarenwaju (2018) contextualized autonomy when he said it is the capacity of an individual or institution to make an informed, un-coerced decision by its own self; it is the state or condition of having independence or freedom to decide a course of action. The European Universities Association for example, defines, it has including organisational, financial, staffing and academic independence of universities. The 1997 UNESCO recommendation concerning the status of Higher Education Teaching Personnel, contain an elaborate elucidation of the concept of university autonomy when its define University autonomy in paragraphs 17-21 as follows:

“Autonomy is that degree of self-governance necessary for effective decision making by institution of higher education regarding their academic work, standards, management and related activities consistent with system of public accountability, especially in respect of funding provided by the state, and respect for academic freedom and human rights”…

Again, UNESCO stated there are three essential components of meaningful university autonomy, these are;

Self-governance

Collegiality and

Appropriate academic leadership.

Perhaps, self-governance in this sense refers to the ability of a university to exercise internal control or rule over itself. it refers to internal integrity and the ability of an institution to derive authority for its key decision from within. Collegiality refers to shared power and authority vested among colleagues. In an autonomous university, decision making powers are exercised amongst scholars, students, staffs and stakeholders in the academic environment in a fair and democratic way. As such, those decisions are autochthonous (i.e. home grown) and derive legitimacy from within.

In order to have most qualified members of the University community as head in various department, unit, section, autonomy as a yard stick to determine such appointment becomes fundamental. Autonomy in this sense refers to a meritocratic system in which the most qualified scholars are promoted to occupy leadership positions, based on the fundamental belief that power should be vested in individuals according to merit. Olarenwaju (2018) supported this view when he mentioned that, Nigeria’s university system had all the three trappings of being autonomous, collegial and self-governing.

Similarly, Fourie (2004) corroborates that autonomy has two dimensions, namely; institutional and individual autonomy. The former (institutional)equally has two dimension; substantive and procedural autonomy. Substantive has to do with the power of the institution to determine its own goals and programme while procedural refers to the power of the institution to determine the means by which its goals and programmes will be pursued, the how of academy. Citing Berdahl (1990) in Fourie (2004) the essential ingredients of institutional autonomy includes;

Freedom to select staff and students, determine the conditions under which they remain in the university, freedom to determine curriculum contents and degree standards, freedom to allocate funds across different categories of expenditures; the necessary degree of independence from external control that university requires in respect of its internal organisation and governance,the internal distribution of financial resources, staff recruitment, the setting of the condition of study and the freedom to conduct teaching and research.(Fourie,2004)

Indeed, as opined by Amadi (2011), autonomy in higher education implies that each institution must be governed according to the law that established it. Every institution has its law, edict or even decree which spells out the functions of the various organs, such as council, senate, congregation, faculty, department and institute. The other type of autonomy according to Fourie (2004) is Individual Autonomy. This autonomy in the view of the Confederation of Indian universities (2004) means academic freedom. It has to do with members of the academic community. That is scholars, teachers and students pursuing their scholarly activities according to the ethical rules, international standards and without outside pressure. Furthermore, they maintain that academic freedom like academic autonomy engages the obligation of each individual member of the academic profession to excellence, innovation and advancing the frontiers of knowledge through research and diffusion of its results through teaching and

publication. Albeitly, we can deduce that autonomy has been regarded as the corner-stone of the administrative functions of any higher education system. The sustainability of the executive administrative responsibilities, therefore, remain that of perpetual demand by university authorities to internally decide, run and execute their own programms and policies.

  We agreed with the position of  Menzies (1939) the former Prime Minister of Australia who is credited to be the father of University education and reform in Australia. In his reform policies he advocated for importance of university autonomy, thus asked the following questions; what are we to look for in a true university? What causes should it serve? He then put forward answer in response to the above questions? Saying the university must be;

a Place of pure culture and learning,

a training school for the profession,

a liaison between the academician and the ‘good practical man’ (i.e. a bridge between theoretical learning and its practice application),

the home of research,

a trainer of character,

A training ground for leaders,

a custodian of the unfettered search for truth; and

an autonomous institution.

Menzie as reported by Olarenwaju (2018) (2018) was so emphatic in his words, that it is utterly undesirable that any government in a free country ‘like our’, should tell a university what and how it is to teach.Menzie further advocated that the way to a strong higher education system was to create the conditions that allow universities to thrive, and to give them the freedom to chart their own course and then get on with it.

Benefits of Autonomy in promoting university administrative responsibilities

Despite the bureaucratic demands of political correctness, reporting and regulation that stifle productivity and capacity to innovation and weighing down the university administrative functions due to backlash from funding agencies (government and the likes) yet, the university must be free to air out results of findings without fear of backlash. Hence, autonomy becomes imperative in a way as to;

• Promote a culture of merit and fairness within the university system.
• Reduce the perennial tensions, clashes and strikes between government and university hierarchy manipulations.
• Give university authorities freedom to chart their own course, implement without undue interference by government.

Conclusion

By and large when university authority is allowed to design, her own programs and empowered to execute and deliver them, she is morally bound to ensure that such programs and activities succeed. We joined numerous school of thought on autonomy to advocate that autonomy for the Ivory Tower administrator in carrying out statutory administrative function will lead to an increased sense of responsibility and ownership by universities, thereby eliminating some of the root causes of the recurrent strike actions in Nigeria.

Theorizing further, we agreed with Olarenwaju (2018) that university officials, like the judges, should have a feel of sense of independence and job security while executing their sacred function of knowledge dissemination,

administrative responsibilities without iota of fear or nepotism. A situation whereby government interferes in appointments, dismissal, promotion, tenure and administrative roles means erodment of the universities in their abilities to independently perform their primordial functions and roles without undue pressure. In this regard the policy statement of a free and democratic society as stipulated in the Nigeria National Policy of Education is achievable, hitherto, the internal organization and administration of each institution shall be its own responsibility (FGN,2014).  

References

Agbato (1990) in Nte, A.R (2010) College of Education and Universities in Nigeria: Administration, Development, Problems and Aspiration: Port Harcourt; Minson Publication pp. 1-5.

Altback G.P (2005): Pattern in Higher Education Development, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between the Nigerian tertiary education system and early childhood education, with a particular focus on the impact of tertiary education on the quality of early childhood learning and development. It looked at the challenges faced by Nigerian tertiary institutions, which range from limited resources and outdated curricula to insufficient practical training for aspiring educators. The study emphasizes the influence of tertiary education curricula, the competence of trained teachers, the availability of resources, and the efficacy of government policies in shaping early childhood education in Nigeria. The findings highlight the urgent need for systematic reforms within the Nigerian tertiary education system. This urgency is echoed in the study’s call for curriculum revisions, augmented practical training experiences, and collaborative initiatives between educational institutions, governmental bodies, non-governmental organizations, and local communities. The study’s implications offer insights for educators, policymakers, and researchers nationally and globally, emphasizing the importance of contextually relevant and updated early childhood education practices. Importantly, this study highlights the special role of early childhood education as the bedrock of societal development. It emphasizes the significance of ensuring that every child receives a comprehensive and robust educational foundation. Recommendations included coordinated efforts and shared responsibility of various stakeholders, advocating for a future where early childhood education in Nigeria is not just a goal but a fundamental right, thereby contributing substantially to the nation’s progress and fostering a generation of well-equipped, empowered, and knowledgeable individuals.

Keywords: Nigerian Tertiary education system, quality, early childhood, learning, development

Introduction

The Nigerian Tertiary Education System comprises of universities, colleges, and polytechnics.  Tertiary education in Nigeria is regulated by the National Universities Commission (NUC), the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), and the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE), as mandated by the Nigerian Constitution.  The system consists of federal, state, and private institutions, each possessing distinct characteristics and facing individual issues (Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN, 2013).   The tertiary education system in Nigeria has encountered various challenges such as insufficient financial resources, obsolete curricula, and poor facilities (Ajayi, 2015).  These problems have implications not only for higher education but also for the quality of education at earlier stages, including early childhood education.

Early childhood development and learning establish the foundation for a child’s future success in education and in life. Children acquire essential cognitive, social, emotional, and physical skills during the early years (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Camilli, Vargas, Ryan, and Barnett (2010) found a correlation between high-quality early childhood education programmes and improved academic performance, reduced dropout rates, and enhanced social and emotional abilities. Investing in early childhood education is crucial in Nigeria as it plays an important role in disrupting the cycle of poverty, enhancing literacy rates, and promoting national development (Federal Ministry of Education, 2016). The training gained by educators in the tertiary education system has a considerable impact on the quality of early childhood education.

Literature Review

The Nigerian Tertiary Education System: An Overview

Since gaining independence in 1960, Nigeria’s education system has gone through significant changes. Initially influenced by British colonial models, the system has evolved through the implementation of numerous educational policies and reforms. Historically, the Nigerian education system has been marred by disparities in access, quality, and relevance, which are frequently influenced by political, economic, and social factors (Ajayi, 2006).

The tertiary education system in Nigeria consists of universities, colleges of education, and polytechnics, each of which serves a distinct educational function. Universities in Nigeria provide the highest level of tertiary education. They offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programmes and are recognised for their emphasis on theoretical knowledge and research-based education. In Nigeria, colleges of education emphasise specialised disciplines in education leading to the award of Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE). Other colleges provide trainings in the fields of agriculture, health, and technology. They offer certificate and diploma programmes and bridge the divide between secondary school and university. Polytechnics provide technical and vocational education programmes for national and Higher National Diploma (ND/ HND). In fields such as engineering, computer science, and business studies, they emphasise practical skills and prepare students for specific vocations.

In Nigerian higher institutions, the curriculum is often organised into academic departments, with courses designed around academic specialties. Core courses, electives, and practical training in specialised disciplines are frequently included in the curriculum. However, curricular relevance has been criticised, with suggestions for a more practical, industry-oriented focus (Adeyinka & Adebukola, 2017). Lectures, tutorials, laboratory work, and field experiences are common methods of teaching in Nigerian higher education institutions. The major method of instruction is lectures, with increasing efforts to incorporate interactive and student-centred teaching methods to improve learning results (Ajadi, 2017).

In Nigeria, teacher education is mostly provided at universities and colleges of education. Individuals who want to become educators obtain the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE) or Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) degree, which provide pedagogical knowledge and skills for teaching. There are also specialised postgraduate programmes for those who want to be teachers, such as the Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE) (FRN, 2013).

The challenges encountered by institutions of higher education include funding, the quality of the education provided, infrastructure, and political instability. The endemic underfunding of tertiary institutions in Nigeria has led to inadequate infrastructure, obsolete facilities, and limited resources for research and development (Ololube, 2013). Concerns regarding the quality of education include obsolete curricula, insufficient practical training, and a mismatch between the skills of graduates and industry needs. Furthermore, the standardisation of education across institutions is a source of concern (Aluede & Imhonde, 2016). In addition, many tertiary institutions lack essential infrastructure, such as well-equipped laboratories, libraries, and internet access. This hinders students’ research activities and overall educational experience (Ogundele, 2015). Lastly, periodic strikes by academic staff unions like the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Colleges of Education Academic Staff Union (COEASU), and Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics (ASUP) in response to issues such as unpaid salaries and poor working conditions disrupt the academic calendar, resulting in delayed graduation and extended education periods (Adeyinka, 2018). These issues impede the provision of quality education and have a disproportionate impact on early childhood education programmes (FGN/UNICEF, 2018; World Bank, 2019).

Early Childhood Learning and Development in Nigeria

Early childhood education is critical because it establishes a child’s physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. High-quality early childhood programmes regularly promote school readiness, academic achievement, and lead to positive social behaviours later in life (Barnett, 2011). Early education also aids in the development of important abilities such as language competence, problem-solving, and emotional regulation, giving children a head start in life.

Several theoretical frameworks guide early childhood education. Piagetian theory focuses on cognitive stages, whereas Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory focuses on social interaction and cultural background. Environmental influences on a child’s development are considered in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, while psychological demands are highlighted in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Berk, 2009; Wood & Attfield, 2005).  Countries around the world also adopt diverse approaches to early childhood education. The Reggio Emilia approach in Italy emphasizes child-led learning and creativity. In Finland, play-based learning is central, while in China, academic rigour starts early. Comparative studies provide guidance regarding effective early childhood education strategies (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 2012; Sahlberg, 2011; Stacey, 2007). 

Despite the fact that there have been efforts made to advance early childhood education in Nigeria, obstacles such as restricted access to high-quality programmes continue to exist. According to FME (2016), rural areas suffer from a shortage of both infrastructure and awareness, which leads to lower enrolment rates. Ogunyemi (2016) found that there are disparities in the quality of early childhood education exist between urban and rural areas. Urban centres often have better-equipped facilities and trained teachers, while rural areas struggle with inadequate resources.

The factors influencing the Quality of Early Childhood Education include teacher training, curriculum relevance, and infrastructure and resources. The qualifications and training of teachers significantly impact the quality of early childhood education. Well-trained educators understand child development principles, leading to effective teaching strategies (Egunyomi & Olorukooba, 2015). The relevance of the curriculum to the cultural context and the needs of the children is crucial. A curriculum that integrates local culture and language fosters better engagement and learning outcomes (Osokoya & Okwilagwe, 2014). Adequate infrastructure, including safe classrooms, play areas, and learning materials, is essential for a conducive learning environment. Lack of resources negatively affects the quality of education (Adegbile, 2017).

Caregivers and parents have a crucial role to play in early childhood development through the provision of emotional support, early stimulation and health and nutrition. According to Landry, Smith, Swank and Assel (2001), emotional support from caregivers and parents is fundamental for a child’s development. Positive interactions and a nurturing environment contribute to emotional well-being and social skills. Caregivers and parents play a vital role in stimulating a child’s curiosity and creativity through activities such as reading, storytelling, and interactive play enhance cognitive and language skills(Weigel, Martin & Bennett, 2006). In addition, ensuring access to proper nutrition and healthcare is critical. This is because malnutrition and health issues can hinder a child’s physical and cognitive development as noted by Black, Allen, Bhutta, Caulfield, de Onis, Ezzati, … and Rivera (2008).

Impact of Nigerian Tertiary Education on Early Childhood Learning

Early childhood education is highly influenced by the curricula that are taught in tertiary education institutions. The knowledge and abilities of future educators can be improved by ensuring that their training programmes are in line with current results from research on child development, pedagogy, and educational psychology. In addition, a curriculum that is well-designed helps foster an awareness of age-appropriate teaching methods, child psychology, and socio-emotional development, which has a direct impact on how young children are taught and nurtured (Goffin & Wilson, 2018).

Tertiary institutions are responsible for shaping future educators. The quality of training directly impacts teachers’ pedagogical competence. Well-trained teachers possess a strong theoretical foundation, teaching techniques, and classroom management skills necessary for effective early childhood education (Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2000). Tertiary education instils professional ethics in future educators, emphasizing the importance of empathy, cultural sensitivity, and ethical conduct. These qualities are vital when working with young children and their families, ensuring a positive and inclusive learning environment (Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1995). Tertiary institutions equipped with modern teaching aids and learning materials enable educators to understand the significance of age-appropriate resources. Exposure to diverse teaching tools enhances creativity and innovation in designing engaging learning experiences for young learners (Clements & Sarama, 2017). In addition, access to well-equipped preschools or childcare centres within tertiary institutions provides future teachers with opportunities for practical experience. Direct interactions with children under supervision enhance their understanding of classroom dynamics, child behaviour, and effective teaching strategies (Katz, 1993).

In Nigeria, government policies regulate the standards of early childhood education. Tertiary institutions, aligning their programmes with these policies, ensure that teachers are well-versed with the latest regulations, contributing to the creation of safe, high-quality learning environments (Bennett & Vygotsky, 2013). Government funding directly impacts the availability of resources in tertiary institutions. Adequate financial support ensures the development of state-of-the-art facilities, research opportunities, and scholarships, encouraging more students to pursue careers in early childhood education (Carnoy, 2019). Government initiatives for continuous professional development of early childhood educators encourage collaboration between tertiary institutions and practicing teachers. This collaboration enhances the exchange of knowledge, ensuring that educators are updated with the latest teaching methodologies and research findings (Yinger & Hendricks, 1995).

Research on the influence of tertiary education on early childhood development in Nigeria reveals that well-trained educators significantly enhance children’s learning experiences. Nigerian teachers who are equipped with advanced knowledge and pedagogical skills create stimulating environments that are conducive to learning and social development. Studies by Olaleye and Omotayo (2009); as well as Ajayi and Ekundayo (2011) have demonstrated that well-educated teachers contribute to improved cognitive and social outcomes in early childhood education settings. These findings highlight the critical role of teacher education programmes in preparing educators to foster young learners’ development effectively.

Case Studies and Empirical Evidence of Successful Early Childhood Education Programmes

There is a wealth of available evidences regarding schools in Nigeria that adopted early childhood education practises and saw positive results as a result of their implementation. The Rainbow Nursery School, Lagos school implemented an integrated curriculum focusing on play-based learning, child-centred teaching, and parental involvement. Through community engagement and continuous teacher training, the school created a nurturing environment that significantly enhanced children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development (Adebukola, 2017). Another example is the Childville School, Lagos. The school effectively uses a holistic approach to early childhood education, integrating cognitive, emotional, social, and physical development into their curriculum. They use technology, music, and arts to address various aspects of learning and individual needs. This approach fosters creativity, critical thinking, and emotional intelligence, resulting in well-rounded students with enhanced problem-solving skills and resilience (Osaretin & Uwadiae, 2018).

There are also empirical evidences in Nigeria which support the impact of tertiary education on early childhood learning. For example, studies have shown that teachers who graduate from institutions with comprehensive early childhood education programs are better prepared to teach young children. Research by Ajayi and Ogunyemi (2018) demonstrated a positive correlation between teacher training in tertiary institutions and the quality of early childhood education, emphasizing the importance of pedagogical training in shaping effective early childhood educators. Similarly, research by Aladejana and Odejobi (2006) found that well-trained early childhood educators in Nigeria significantly enhance children’s cognitive and social development. Another study by Oduolowu (2009) confirmed that teachers with specialized training in early childhood education from tertiary institutions implement more effective teaching strategies, which lead to better learning outcomes for young children.

Comparative analyses between Nigeria’s early childhood education system and international standards, such as the Reggio Emilia approach in Italy, the High/Scope approach in the United States, and the Te Whāriki framework in New Zealand, reveal several areas for potential improvement in Nigerian programmes. The Reggio Emilia approach emphasizes child-led learning, creativity, and the importance of the environment as the third teacher (Danga, 2024). This method encourages children to explore and express themselves through various forms of art and play. In contrast, Nigerian early childhood education programmes often follow more traditional, teacher-centred methods, which may limit opportunities for child-led exploration and creative expression. Therefore, principles from the Reggio Emilia approach, such as fostering a rich, stimulating environment and allowing children more autonomy in their learning activities, when adapted into the Nigerian programmes can better support children’s natural curiosity and creativity (Edwards, Gandini & Forman, 2012).

The High/Scope approach focuses on active participatory learning, where children have a say in what they do each day. They plan, carry out, and review their activities, which promotes decision-making and problem-solving skills. Nigerian early childhood education programmes might not emphasize such high levels of child autonomy and active learning, often following more rigid curricular structures. Incorporating elements of the High/Scope approach can help Nigerian programmes encourage children to take an active role in their learning. This includes creating opportunities for children to make choices, interact with their peers, and engage in hands-on activities (Hohmann & Weikart, 2002).

The Te Whāriki framework emphasizes holistic development, integrating cultural values and fostering relationships among children, families, and communities. It is designed to be inclusive and culturally responsive, reflecting New Zealand’s diverse society. Nigerian early childhood programmes may sometimes overlook the importance of cultural context and holistic development, focusing more on academic readiness. By adopting aspects of the Te Whāriki framework, Nigerian early childhood education can become more culturally sensitive and inclusive. This would involve valuing and including local traditions, languages, and family practices into the curriculum, thus fostering a sense of identity and belonging among young learners (Ministry of Education, 2017).

Top of Form

Challenges and Solutions in Improving Early Childhood Education through the Nigerian Tertiary Education System

As previously highlighted, the Nigerian tertiary education system faces a number of challenges, including those listed below which affect early childhood education programmes:

1. Limited Resources: Tertiary institutions often lack adequate funding and resources to offer comprehensive training in early childhood education. Outdated facilities and a lack of modern teaching aids hinder the quality of education provided to future educators (FME, 2014).
2. Outdated Curricula: Many tertiary education programmes have curricula that do not align with current research and international best practices in early childhood education. This mismatch affects the preparedness of graduates to meet the demands of modern teaching environments (Obomanu & Gbamanja, 2019).
3. Insufficient Practical Experience: Limited access to practical teaching experiences, such as internships and classroom observations, leaves future educators ill-equipped to handle real-world early childhood education scenarios (Prah & Agbenyega, 2019).

In view of the aforementioned challenges, the following are recommended as solutions:

1. Curriculum Revision: Tertiary institutions in Nigeria should regularly update their curricula to align with global standards and incorporate the latest research findings. Collaboration with early childhood education experts and practitioners can aid in curriculum development. Studies by Nigerian scholars, such as Osanyin and Oladejo (2016), emphasize the importance of continuously evolving the curriculum to meet contemporary educational needs and global best practices. Regular revisions ensure that educators are equipped with the most current pedagogical strategies and knowledge, ultimately benefiting early childhood education in Nigeria.
2. Practical Training Enhancement: Tertiary institutions should form collaborations with preschools, kindergartens, and early childhood education centres to provide student-teachers with practical experience. According to Akinpelu and Ojo (2019), teaching practice and practicum programmes offer essential opportunities for students to apply their theoretical knowledge in real-world settings. These practical experiences are vital for bridging the gap between classroom learning and actual teaching practice in early childhood education.
3. Continuous Professional Development: Tertiary institutions should encourage lecturers and early childhood educators to participate in continuous professional development to stay abreast of the latest trends and innovations in early childhood education. In Nigeria, workshops, seminars, and conferences can be instrumental in facilitating knowledge exchange and updating teaching practices. Bello and Ahmed (2021), emphasize the importance of ongoing training for educators to enhance their skills and effectively implement contemporary educational strategies.

Role of Government, NGOs, and Community Involvement

1. Government Support: The government should increase funding for tertiary institutions, specifically allocating funds for early childhood education programmes. Establishing quality assurance mechanisms and regulatory standards can ensure the consistency and effectiveness of these programmes (Olayiwola & Fasasi, 2017).
2. NGO Initiatives: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can collaborate with tertiary institutions to provide financial support, training resources, and expertise. Initiatives that focus on curriculum development and teacher training can significantly enhance the quality of education (UNESCO, 2015).
3. Community Involvement: Communities can play an active role by supporting local schools and colleges. Parent-teacher associations, community workshops, and awareness campaigns can create a supportive environment, fostering a sense of collective responsibility for early childhood education. Community engagement, through initiatives such as local support groups and collaborative projects, enhances the quality of early childhood education, building strong community ties to support educational development and improve outcomes for young learners (Adebayo & Olaniyan, 2021).

Conclusion

This study examined the impact of the Nigerian tertiary education system on early childhood education, highlighting the influence of curricula, teacher quality, resources, and government policies. The key challenges identified include limited resources, outdated curricula, and inadequate practical training for future early childhood educators. The findings stress the need for comprehensive reforms, including updating curricula, enhancing practical training, and encouragement of partnerships with government, NGOs, and communities. Improving early childhood education in Nigeria is central towards building a strong and solid foundation for lifelong learning and development. It requires a collective effort from educators, policymakers, parents, and the broader community to ensure that every child receives high-quality education and a strong start in life. Prioritizing early childhood education will significantly contribute to the nation’s progress and future prosperity.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

COMPLEMENTING FACE-TO-FACE PEDAGOGY WITH TECHNOLOGY-ENABLED LEARNING METHOD FOR QUALITY MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Abstract

This paper examines the issue of complementing face-to-face pedagogy with technology-enabled learning method for quality mathematics education in colleges of education in Nigeria. With the advent of the Covid 19 pandemic which crippled the education system and exposed the weakness of the conventional lecture method, there is a need to complement the face-to-face learning with the technology-enabled learning methods. Many countries have moved on/or added other methods towards a paradigm shift in learning to explore methods that makes for quality education. This paper discusses the concepts of face-to-face and technology-enable learning methods. A case is also made for the need for quality education in the Colleges of Education being Nigeria’s teacher training institution. In addition, the different forms of technology-enabled learning methods that can be used in colleges of education were discussed. Also, reference is made to how quality education can be achieved through complementing the face-to-face pedagogy with technology-enabled learning. Recommendations were made on how colleges of education can leverage on technology-enabled learning for quality mathematics education.

Keywords: Face-To-Face Pedagogy, Technology-Enabled Learning, Quality Education, Colleges of Education

Introduction

The face-to-face pedagogy (F2FP) is the most predominant method used in lesson delivery at all levels of education in Nigeria. It is an instructional method where learning content and material are taught in person to a group of learners. It involves physical contact or appearance between the facilitator and the learners, both of which can see, touch and hear each other (Solak & Cakir, 2014; Turbill, 2015; Zagouras et al, 2022). The most popular method of instruction delivery in the Colleges of Education (COE) in Nigeria is the F2FP. The teachers in training are taught using this method. The mathematics education student teachers are also taught using the F2FP which was somewhat adequate until the Covid 19 pandemic struck and crippled the education system. The pandemic also exposed the weakness of the F2FP (also referred to as conventional lecture method).

The advent of the pandemic birthed the quest for a new pedagogical approaches that is not limited by space and physical presence as demanded by the F2FP. One of such methods is the Technology-Enable Learning Method (TELM). TELM simply refers to pedagogical approaches that uses technology in its procedure. It is imperative to bring up the trending terminology termed Technology-Enhanced Learning (TEL) which is used to describe the application of information and communication technologies to teaching and learning (Kirkwood & Price, 2014) while TELM as used in this study shares similar meaning, it is not about ‘enhancing’ but ‘enabling’. Literature has not been able to articulate what the term ‘enhanced’ means since many authors gave various ambiguous meaning that does not converge (Kirkwood & Price, 2014). In this study, TELM is seen as a method that to makes able, gives power, means, competence, or ability to technological use in teaching and learning not necessarily to enhance.

The need for the use of TELM in the Nigerian COEs has become paramount and must be inculcated for pedagogical efficiency. The COEs are saddled with responsibility of training teachers to teach in the lower, middle and upper basic level of Nigeria’s educational system where foundation for education is laid. This study makes a case for the use of TELM in mathematics pedagogy in COEs since it is the operating system for science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Additionally, TELM captivates students, leads to learning at individual Pace and also improves access to resources. With the global change in pedagogical approaches, especially the paradigm shifts from teacher-centered to learner-centered methods, it is only imperative that the use of F2FP for mathematics education in the COEs is complimented with TELM to prepare teachers who in turn will teach our young people for Nigeria to thrive in the technology driven world.

Consequently, this paper discusses the concepts of face-to-face, technology-enable learning methods and the need for quality education in the Colleges of Education being Nigeria’s teacher training institution. In addition, the different forms of technology-enabled learning methods that can be used in colleges of education were highlighted. Moreover, reference is made to how quality education can be achieved through complimenting the face-to-face pedagogy with technology-enabled learning.

Face-to-Face Pedagogy (F2FP)

The Face-to-face Pedagogy (F2FP) is one of the most popular and oldest learning method known to man. It is a traditional classroom-based method of learning which involves in-person sessions that is instructor-led (Olmstead, 2023). The pace of learning in the F2FP is fast and in real time, it is set by the instructor and students in this setting are passive learners. F2FP is considered effective due to the benefits of live interaction between the instructor and the group of learners and/or students. The social connectedness and a sense of building a community & defines the F2FP (Kemp Grieve, 2014).

The definition of F2FP is simple and converges in a physical appearance of a facilitator (instructor/teacher) and a learner (s) in a defined place (classroom, auditorium, a room in a building etc) at any agreed time which may be formal or informal (Norman, 2020; Chisadza, et al, 2021; Olmstead, 2023).  Moreover, the F2FP is a teacher-centered based pedagogy. Some of the advantages informal (Norman, 2020; Chisadza, et al, 2021; Olmstead, 2023).Moreover, the F2FP is a teacher-centered based pedagogy. Some of the advantages of the F2FP according to Olmstead (2023) and My Path Education (2023) are as follows:

1. It encourages social interactions among learners since learns learn together, at the same time, at the same place.
2. It allows instructors to develop 1-1 learning plans and relationships with learners.
3. It fosters discussion and collaboration among learners who are physically present.
4. It helps learners concentrate harder on learning by avoiding distractions.
5. Learners can connect with, problem-solve, and network with other students from a wide range of backgrounds.
6. Learners can access more information and richer understanding through teacher and other students’ body language and voice.
7.  The F2FP promotes collaborative learning among peers.
8. Encourages critical thinking.
9. Teaches accountability and Responsibility

Disadvantages of the F2FP according to the Redaction Team (2023) are as follows:

1. The F2FP is observed to lack flexibility since it requires students to structure their day around set class times.
2. The F2FP gives learners limited access to information (limited to availability of resources, what is provided in class, textbooks and materials).
3. It is dependence on Teacher’s Availability. Learners are dependent on the availability of the instructor for guidance and assistance.
4. The F2FP can be expose learners to Distractions (such as noise, interruptions, or the presence of disruptive students which may hinder other learners’ ability to concentrate and fully engage in the learning process.
5. F2FP is constrained by geographical proximity, requiring learners to be physically present in a specific location which may restrict access to educational opportunities for individuals who live in remote areas or are unable to commute to a physical learning institution.

To cover up the gaps in the F2FP, there is a paradigm shift to the Technology-Enabled Learning Methods (TELM) due to the advent of the internet and ICT.  TELM is making learning a whole new experience for learners, teacher and institutions of learning.

The Technology-Enable Learning Method

Technology-Enabled Learning Method (TELM) describes the use of technology, platforms, systems and digital content to extend and enhance student-centered learning. It is the development and application of tools (including software, hardware, and processes) intended to promote education (Jotheeswaran, 2022). TELM has become popular worldwide especially with the advent of the Covid 19 pandemic which crippled the educational sector of many countries. Another reason for the shift of pedagogy to TELM is because the world has moved from the traditional methods to technologically driven methods of learning. Many technologies based ways of learning have emerged and they are observed to be result oriented (Cleveland-Innes et al, 2019). Reyes (2023) outlined seven TELM as follows: 

1. BYOD: Stands for “Bring Your Own Device”, or buy your own personal desktop, laptop, Smartphone or other device and use it at work or at school.

2. Performance Support: Performance support is a method for supporting a learner’s performance on the job and at the moment of need. Example, a mobile device could be accessed to give step-by-step instructions (in text or video format, perhaps) on how to perform a task in the field. Or, an expert could be called via video conference for consultation while performing a complex procedure.

3. Microlearning: Microlearning  involves dissecting learning into “microscopic” learning bursts (typically 2-10 minutes each). Supporters say microlearning matches human brain processing capabilities, combating learner boredom, disengagement, and poor retention.

4. Gamification: In a broad sense, gamification is the integration of game elements and game design techniques in a non-game context (in this case, in the context of learning).

5. Flipped Classroom:  Having students watch lectures, read text, and learn content (typically online or offline) on their won. And then students attend class and solve problems, write essays, and gain practical knowledge with the teacher in the classroom as a partner/coach/tutor/guide.

6. On-Demand Training:  This is training that can be accessed by the learner at will at anytime, anywhere. Typically, that means that the full training experience can be accessed on a computer/laptop (online or via disk) or mobile device.

7. Adaptive Learning: Adaptive learning is a technique that allows for personalization of learning by “adapting” learning material to individual learning needs.

The above and other forms of the TELM such as the internet, E-books, online courses, smartphones, tablets and other devices have been seen to change the status quo of learning. The Colleges of Education in Nigeria being a teacher training institution need to be given to the TELM for quality education especially in the training of mathematics teachers. 

The need for quality education in colleges of education

The term ‘Quality Education’ does not have a generally accepted meaning but can be understood from different perspectives.  For instance, UNESCO (2021) on its website gave its philosophy for education and ‘quality education’ as follows:

Education is the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits. Quality education specifically entails issues such as appropriate skills development, gender parity, provision of relevant school infrastructure, equipment, educational materials and resources, scholarships or teaching force.

Drawing from the above, the Colleges of Education (COEs) in Nigeria is expected to be an institution from which quality education emanates from. The institution is saddled with the responsibility of training teachers who will in turn teach younger generations. The National Policy on Education has spelt out many requirements which is in nexus with the standards set by the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) that regulates COEs. As laudable as they may be, there is a need to for the COEs to train teachers under a comparative pedagogical environment with other countries.

Many countries are either complimenting the F2FP with other approaches that are result oriented or researching into its application in their institutions of learning (Cleveland-Innes et al, 2019). This is in a bid to improve and enhance the ‘quality of education’ their citizens acquire. VVOB (2023) defines quality education on their website as follows:

“Quality education is one that provides all learners with capabilities they require to become economically productive, develop sustainable livelihoods, contribute to peaceful and democratic societies and enhance individual well-being. The learning outcomes that are required vary according to context but at the end of the basic education cycle must include threshold levels of literacy and numeracy, basic scientific knowledge and life skills including awareness and prevention of disease. Capacity development to improve the quality of teachers and other education stakeholders is crucial throughout this process.”

A point to note in this definition is that quality education includes the development of teachers. A case is then made for mathematics teachers in training at the COEs who upon graduation are expected to teacher at the basic level (lower, middle and upper). Since quality education seeks improvement as an outcome in learning parameters, there is a need to train the COE mathematics students teachers and instructors in the use of the trending Technology-Enabled Learning Method (TELM) to bring about quality education that can be passed on to young learners. Consequently, the right TELM for mathematics pedagogy for the COEs should be used.

TELM for Mathematics Education Pedagogy in Colleges of Education

There are many TELM for mathematics pedagogy used by many countries. An old debate is whether or not Nigeria ready to utilized the TELM. The institutions of higher learning (University, COEs and Polytechnics) have witnessed to influx and use of various devices that can be categorized as TELM among students. Many studies such as Ejo (2020) and Alabdulaziz, (2021) reported on the use of technology in mathematics classroom. Interestingly, some authors believe that TELM may not bring about the desired turnaround of the malady of poor students’ performance in the subject. However, Aparna (2016) asserted that TELM may solve the problem of understanding of abstract concepts which has made many learners hate mathematics.  

Software used for teaching and learning Mathematics are: Graphic Calculators, Dynamic graphing tools, Dynamic geometry tools, Microsoft Excel / spreadsheet, Microsoft Mathematics, Geo Gebra, Auto shape, MAT LAB (Aparna, 2016). These can be introduced into the COEs curriculum alongside the seven (7) methods outlined by Reyes (2023).  

Conclusion

The mathematics pedagogy in the COEs in Nigeria has predominantly utilized the Face-to-face Pedagogy (F2FP).  F2FP has some disadvantages and has become inadequate in the face of the changing technological driven world. To ensure quality mathematics education at the COEs, there is a needed to move on to some of the trending Technology-Enabled Learning Method (TELM).

The COEs utilization of TELM will not only ensure quality mathematics education that is comparative to that of other countries but will also motivate the young generation of learners who will be taught by the teachers who were trained in its use. Hence a case is made for the complimenting of the F2FP with TELM for quality mathematics education at the COEs in Nigeria. This will also hopefully prepare and motivate future learners who will take up careers in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics because mathematics is the operating system of science.

Recommendations

Based on the discussions above, the following suggestions are made:

1. COEs should organise seminars and workshops for lecturers and students on the use of relevant TELM in mathematics pedagogy.
2. Mathematics Lecturers of COEs should be encouraged to complement F2FP with TELM.
3. The NCCE should review the current mathematics minimum Standards to accommodate the use of TELM for mathematics pedagogy. 

References

Adrian Kirkwood & Linda Price (2014). Technology-enhanced learning and teaching in higher education: what is ‘enhanced’ and how do we know? A critical literature review. Learning, Media and Technology, 39(1), 6-36.  

Alabdulaziz, M.S. (2021). COVID-19 and the use of digital technology in mathematics education. Educ Inf Technol 26, 7609–7633, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10602-3

Aparna, M. (2016). Technological methods in teaching mathematics. International Journal of New Technologies in Science and Engineering, 3(11), 22-24.

Chisadza, C., Clance, M., Mthembu, T., Nicholls, N., & Yitbarek, E. (2021). Online and face‐to‐face learning: Evidence from students’ performance during the Covid‐19 pandemic. African Development Review, 33(S1). doi:10.1111/1467-8268.12520 

Cleveland-Innes, M., Gauvreau, S., Richardson, G., Mishra, S., & Ostashewski, N. (2019). Technology-enabled learning and the benefits and challenges of using the community of inquiry theoretical framework.  International Journal of E-Learning and Distance Education, 34(1), 1-18.

Ejoh, D. U. (2020). Influence of Mathematics Teachers’ Technology Use on Secondary Students’ Motivation, Attitude, and Achievement in Nigeria. PhD Dissertation. Walden University.

Jotheeswaran, J. (2022). Why Technology Enabled Learning is Important for teaching? https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-technology-enabled-learning-important-teaching-jotheeswaran-phd

Kemp, N., & Grieve, R. (2014). Face-to-face or face-to-screen? Undergraduates’ opinions and test performance in classroom vs. online learning. Front. Psychol, 5,  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01278

My Path Education (2023). 6 benefits of face-to-face learning. https://mypatheducation.edu.au/health-and-aged-care-courses/6-benefits-of-face-to-face-learning/

Norman, Z. D. (2020). Understanding the Effect of Distance Learning vs. Face-to-Face Learning Experiences on Students’ Engagement in Higher Education. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3734764 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3734764

Olmstead, L. (2023). Online learning vs. face-to-face learning: Which is best? https://whatfix.com/blog/online-learning-vs-face-to-face-learning/

Redaction Team (2023). 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Face-to-Face Learning. https://barrazacarlos.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-face-to-face-learning/

Reyes, G. (2023).  7 Digitally-Enabled Learning Techniques Scrutinized and Categorized. https://learn.trakstar.com/blog/7-digitally-enabled-learning-techniques

Solak, E., & Cakir, R. (2014). Face to face or e-learning in Turkish EFL context.  Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education-TOJDE, 15(3), 37 – 49.

Turbill, J. (2015). Transformation of traditional face-to-face teaching to mobile teaching and learning: Pedagogical perspectives. 10.1007/978-3-642-54146-9_54.

Zagouras, C., Egarchou, D., Skiniotis, P. (2022). Face to face or blended learning? A case study: Teacher training in the pedagogical use of ICT. Educ Inf Technol 27, 12939–12967 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11144-y

Western Sydney university (2023). Technology-enabled learning. https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/tel#:~:text=Technology%2DEnabled%20Learning%20(TEL),the%20consideration%20of%20pedagogical%20principles

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This paper titled “Institutional Autonomy of Nigerian University Education”: ‘Underlying Assumptions’, is concerned with the vex issue of institutional autonomy in Nigerian Universities. It looked at how the Concept autonomy is being given different interpretations, which has made it not to be actually practicable. Rather, Lips-Service is paid to the issue of University Autonomy in Nigeria probably because the institutions are owned by the Government of Nigeria. Just like the saying goes that, He who plays the piper dictates the tune”. The Paper made some findings among which is that institutional Autonomy in Nigeria has been greatly eroded and finally some suggestions were made.

Antonomy of Nigerian University Education:        Underlying Assumption

Introduction

The agitation for institutional autonomy of Nigerian Universities still bristles with thorny issues which has continuously provoked a industrial unrest by the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU). This vex issue of institutional autonomy had greatly dealt a devastating blow on the quality of education in Nigeria. Interestingly, the essence of the agitation for institutional autonomy in the country by the Academic Staff Union of Nigeria (ASUU) is enable it put the university education at par with the global trend as it is obtained in developed countries. Institutional autonomy is very essential for the advancement, transmission and application of knowledge. Regrettably the agitation for institutional autonomy in Nigeria universities education has become almost impossible request due to government ownership of these institutions. Inspite of that, institutional autonomy appears to be indispensable for universities to play their role effectively within the societal context, which certain realities exert considerable erosive influences on it.

The notion of institutional autonomy as being revisited in this year Annual Conference of Philosophers of Education Association of Nigeria with a renew hope and aspiration that the present democratic dispensation, will examined what hopes it holds for the realization of these principles and what ways will the government of Nigeria demonstrate the political will for the realization of the principle of autonomy. Also it is hope that the contending issues of granting institutional autonomy to universities in Nigeria will be backed by administration of a political will. This paper therefore attempts to explicate the concept of autonomy, government and institutional autonomy, constraints to autonomy in Nigerian universities and the way forward in the quest for university autonomy in Nigeria.

Meaning of Autonomy

The concept of institutional autonomy has been given many interpretations which are suitable for particular situations. In this paper/study, some array of definitions will be presented to offer an in-depth of what institutional autonomy implies. Institutional autonomy is generally perceived as non-interference and independence of an academic institution¹ Institutional autonomy in the words of Abubakar and Abadulahi² implies “the freedom of institutions to function without undue control or influence by external forces or agencies“. Arguably here is that, what is common to the concept of institutional autonomy is that it relates to institutional governance which entails such institutions carry out its functions of advancement, transmission and application of knowledge. In another sense of it, the Kampala Declaration explained the concept of institutional autonomy as follows:

“Institutions of higher education shall be autonomous of the state or any other public authority in conducting their affairs including administration and setting up of their academic, teaching, research and other related programmes. Autonomy shall be exercised by democratic means of self-government, involving active participation of all members of the respective academic community.”³

It can be deduced that institutional autonomy is a universal concept although its interpretation and application may vary from one country to another. It is an essential element of a true academic community. Similarly, Jega⁴ opined that, “autonomy is in many respect of life line for institutional growth and development for universities. Indeed, ASUU, the vanguard for the struggle of university autonomy explained institutional autonomy as:

“Self-determination and self-governance or self-rule. The right of members of the academic community to determine the manner in or the general rules by which they are governed and their capacity, as a unit to control their own affairs and shape their own destiny, free of external interference or dictate, are what is meant by university autonomy.⁵

In consonance with ASUU Concept of institutional autonomy, the Federal Government of Nigeria conceptualized Autonomy as thus: Autonomy for universities is defined in terms of their freedom to govern themselves, appoint their key officers, their staff, control their student’s admissions and academic curricular, control their finances and generally regulate themselves as independent legal entities without undue influence from the Federal Government and its agencies.⁶

It is apparent according to Ruwa⁷, that the conceptualization of institutional autonomy by both ASUU and the Federal Government composed of the same elements. One then is forced to ask why then has the problem of autonomy remained a bone of contention between the two. It appears from the perception of the author of this paper that institutional autonomy is a mere paper tiger work.

Institutional Autonomy in Nigeria Universities

This section of the paper is concerned with the issue of practical or feasible institutional autonomy in Nigeria institutional autonomy is situated at the very core of the mission of the universities and it is essential to teaching, learning, and research. Many have argued that a fully developed higher education system cannot exist without institutional autonomy. It is for this reason that ASUU continue to struggle for the realization of institutional autonomy in Nigeria.

For it is a protective corner which universities staff always seek to cherish, but which society greatly envies. Permit one to say that, if there is no institutional autonomy in Nigerian Universities there can be no academic freedom. Autonomy therefore, is the right to control one’s affairs in order to enhance the profession of truth and the search for knowledge. These activities demand adequate independence of thought and action, with minimal or no supervision from outside agencies⁸.

Nigeria universities are weighed down by the bureaucratic demands of political interference. From a far, one may tend to think that, the institutional autonomy of universities in Nigeria is well deserved from a meaningful academic research to solving problems which puzzle mankind, but at a closer look, Undie⁹ opined that, it may be obvious that the restriction of institutional autonomy, is the bye-product of some de-homo-sepiens colleagues who found themselves at the helm of managing the affairs of tertiary education.

In the fourth Republic of Nigeria, the federal government of Nigeria initiated University Autonomy Bill for the consideration of the National Assembly which was passed into Law. According to a media report, as opined by Bagudo¹⁰ that, government decided to restore autonomy to federal universities. To explicate this point further, President Obasanjo opined that “the belief that all aspect of our policy which were militarized in the last three decades ought to be demilitarised as a dividend of democracy, even as he debunked allegations that the move would see the introduction of tuition fees for undergraduate students.¹¹

The President condemned the militalization of all facets of the nation’s life which in his words, degenerated into a situation in which universities, which were autonomous and self-governing institutions lost so much of their autonomy that every major decision affecting them is taken by authorities other than themselves.¹²

To conclude this section of discourse, it is pertinent to acknowledge the erosion of the university autonomy over the years by the Federal Government of Nigeria. The official pronouncement of President Obasanjo in 1992, was an acknowledgement of the erosion of the university autonomy. Thus in cognizant of the role of autonomy in academic pursuit, the Academic Staff Union of University (ASUU), and the Federal Government of Nigeria signed an agreement on the 3^rd of September, 1992 with a view to revamping the entire university system with respect to autonomy, academic freedom and funding. Specifically chapters of the agreement discusses University autonomy and academic freedom.

Threats to Institutional Autonomy in Nigeria

In Nigeria, there are too many threats to institutional autonomy which have over the years eroded the independence of its autonomy. They are itemised thus:

1. Do the universities and other institutions deserve the autonomy in view of the character of University Leadership which represented itself in antecedent cases?
2. University Employment
3. Admission in Universities
4. Awards of Contracts in Universities
5. Accreditation/Resource Verification.
6. Payment of Academic staff and Honoraria.

A detailed discussion of each is undertaken as follows:

University Employment

There is abuse of employment in most universities, without recourse to the extant Law. A situation in which the principles of Federal character has been misapplied, due to the fostering of ethnic hegemony. However, each University through a governing council has the power to appoint, promote and discipline staff, but in several cases especially during the military era, some lecturers were dismissed without following due process. Universities in Nigeria have suffered from arbitrary governance.

In addition, some governments in Nigeria have remove Vice-Chancellors for not complying with their directives. In the last civilian administration of Buhari, University of Lagos, Vice-Chancellor was removed, but not for the intervention from some quarters, which caused him to be reinstated. The expectation of academics that civil rule would be respected, rather academic freedom was shattered with the case of 53 academic staff who were unilaterally dismissed at the University of Ilorin in 1999. Similarly, five professors at Lagos State University who were appointed by the Vice Chancellor, contrary to that provided by the Law were dismissed on the orders of the then State Governor. The Academic Staff Union of the Universities (ASUU) has been banned and unbanned severally by successive governments in Nigeria.

Admissions

The Autonomy of the universities is inferred with in the area of Admissions to Nigerian Universities – Nigerian universities are under attack as the very idea of the central Admission Programmes by Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) was intended to solve the problem of abuse of admissions. This is another way in which the autonomy of universities in Nigerian has been eroded or whittle down.

Awards of Contracts

Contracts are awarded in universities without recourse to the authorities the university management rather universities management have been reduced to supervisory role of contracts. This external interference speaks volumes of the erosion in the area of autonomy.

Accreditation/Resource Verification

–           Academic Programmes taught in Nigeria Universities must seek approval from the National Universities Commission. Failure on the part of any Nigerian University which fail to seek accreditation for any course of study or discipline, such certificates will not be honoured. In this direction, one can say that University autonomy is affected.

–           Payment of Academic Staff and Honoraria: Today, Nigeria University Academic and non-academic staff are not being paid by their individual universities. What is obtainable today is the Integrated Payroll System which has grossly failed to take care of staff promotion and Honoraria. This has affected professional rights of lecturers on sabbatical

Constraints of Autonomy

All universities in the world as a matter of utmost importance strived to dedicate themselves to the cause of truth, that they observed strict adherence to the path of truth and uphold the principle of academic excellence in whatever discipline they identify themselves. Arguably, therefore institutional autonomy in Nigeria is being influenced by some societal realities. These societal realities which tend to erode or limit institutional autonomy are identified by Colier and Bagudo¹³ as thus; academic, economic, egalitarian and consensus imperatives.

One of the reason for the founding of universities in Nigeria was the need to produce or raise intellectuals, researchers, teachers and various categories of manpower desired for the economy, which is the academic imperative. The economic imperative is the second, as an economically developing nation, Nigeria with a low productivity in both per man and per area due to obsolete methods, tools and societal organisation, poor rate of energy production, poor rate of manufacturing output, great needs in education characterized by few schools, small proportion of graduates in relation to the population and professionals and chronic wages, mass poverty.

Universities therefore are being looked upon in order to develop economically as producers of the required and needed manpower to bring about the developmental changes. The tenancy to specifically address the issue of economic development problems of Nigeria, is responsible for the establishment of more universities in the country.

The autonomy of universities founded in egalitarian principle is strongly guarded so as to avoid any deviation from the motivating objectives. Although their traditional autonomy founded on pure academic imperatives is considerably modified or limited. In Nigeria, such limitations tend to ignite complaints of access, parochialism and manipulation by the favoured group.

The consensus imperative perceives a society as one in which conflicts are inherent among its various segments. Such conflicts arise from groups struggling for power, wealth, amenities and other social privileges. They struggle either for the improvement of their own position or the maintenance of the status quo. The Consensus identify therefore advocates conflict resolution through accommodation, restraints, negotiation and consultation. The effect of this ideology on universities is seen in the established structures, through which conflicts and conflicts resolution are affected. The structures are of two dimension as identified by Bagudo¹⁴, those emanating externally from the government through the Ministry of Education and National Universities Commission (NUC) and those that operate internally comprising the Vice-Chancellor, the Governing Council, the Senate, the Deans, the Heads of Departments and other units. The prime motivation for the existence of these structures in Nigerian Universities is to facilitate control, communication, consultation, negotiation, and also achieve consensus so that academic programmes could operate in an environment of order and tranquillity.

Finally, other factors associated with the withering away of university autonomy as observed by Benjamin include, the involvement of states in the establishment and running of universities, ill-equipped in all respects. The erosion of institutional autonomy in Nigeria can be understood within the context of increasing attempt by the states and private individuals to reappraise and redefine the role of higher education in response to shifts in the accumulation process.

Conclusion

University will only be able to claim total autonomy from government when it neither looks up to government for funding nor for employment of its graduates. This situation therefore, is easier imagined than realised, University autonomy from government and government autonomy from university can only be mutually negotiated.¹⁵

There is a common misconception of the government as “the one that pays the piper also dictates the tune”. If Universities deserve or desire autonomy, they must then be self-funding. The matter of autonomy has also been used as a strategy for demobilising and disintegrating the staff unions in the university system. Thus sometime in 2003, Obasanjo’s government attempted to force what it styled “Autonomy Bill” on the Federal University System, the effect of which was to decentralised negotiation between unions and the government(s).

Conclusively, Institutional Autonomy is nothing but all academic, research, administration and related programmes should be run according to individual university laws, statutes, rules and regulations in the governance of the universities. No interference from Government or its agencies such as NUC, ASUU, for a genuine autonomy to be realised there should be adequate funding of Universities.

Suggestions

Having been able to point out some underlying assumptions of Institutional autonomy of Nigerian waivers educate autonomy in Nigeria University, the following suggestions are made thus:

• Universities should strive to play by the rules governing their operations in terms of admissions, employment, contract, appointment of Vice-chancellors and indeed the enterprise for which the universities stand for.
• Universities being citadels for learning should endeavour to operate as centres, rather than being in the periphery and it is the peripherality of this very existence and by extension their autonomy that makes the public tend to lose confidence in their dealings.
• Autonomy should be at the top of the agenda for everyone concerned with higher education. Although, the issue of autonomy is hardly discussed in conferences, rather the major actors in the academic enterprise seem to be concentrating on financial issues, accountability and Institutional Survival.
• Institutional autonomy needs a universal definition and interpretation. It should not limit its scope to the ideal of teaching and research within the confines of the university and in the area of expertise of the scholar.

Endnotes

1. Ruwa, M – Institutional Autonomy And Academic Freedom In Nigerian University – Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy, 2004 VOL II NO 2
2. Abdullahi, F, University Autonomy Niggling Doubts This Day, TUESDAY, 11^th November, 200 P27
3. Bako, R.B. Academic Freedom and Research for Viable Democratic Culture – Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy, 1991-1995-2004, Vol. 2, P50.
4. Ibid P50.
5. Nwaoku, N.A (Ed) AMINA 1988 P4 – Seminar Paper Presented In June 1998, Department of Educational Management (Unpublished).
6. Undie, J.A – Freedom And Autonomy In The Management Of Education In Nigeria – Lead Paper Presentation 3^rd Annual Conference Of The Department Of Educational Management Enugu State University Of Science And Technology Agbani – Enugu – 24^th – 27^th June, 2019.
7. Bagudo, A.A – Autonomy and Academic Freedom in a Democratic Dispensation – The Case of Nigerian Universities – Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy of Nigeria, 2004, Vol. II No. 2, P36.
8. Ibid, P36
9. Jega, A.M – University Autonomy – Problems and Prospects” – Abubakar Tafawa Belewa University Bauchi, Lecture Series, 2002.
10. Bagudo – Op-Cit
11. Bagudo – Op-Cit
12. Bagudo – Op-Cit
13. Bamisaiye, O, A – Higher Education – Whose Autonomy? Nigerian Journal Of Educational Philosophy 2004, VOL II, NO. 2, P6.

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This paper tried to analysed issues involved in the application of instructional methods in the learning process. This is arisen from the continues public outcry on the calibre and quality of graduates from particularly our tertiary institutions which most often is considered to be very low. Its mode or method of application was also considered. The writers argue for Applied scholastic method because of its workability, practicability and guiding principles which enable the learner and teacher to monitor the progress being made at every stage of the learning process, and where any fault is dictated, measures of correcting same are provided before progressing. It was therefore suggested among others that government and other relevant agencies should ensure the provision of adequate and relevant instructional materials to the institutions, while teachers/lectures should ensure its application appropriately as at when due as suggested by Hubbards and other proponent of Applied scholastic method.

Instructional Quality and its Application in Nigerian Tertiary Education. A case for Applied Scholastic method.

Keywords: instructional materials, quality, applied scholastics.

The issue of quality education has dominated public space in more than the last three decades especially after independence, when Nigerians began to question the value and quality of education received in our schools particularly tertiary institutions which is the focus of this paper, the worry is that, these had become irrelevant to our needs. In fact, these informed the hosting of conventions and conferences which later culminated into the national policy on education in 1977, revised in 1981,1998,2004,2007 and the current edition was in 2013. This is a document that is currently guiding the entire education system to date,yet no solution appear insight while the public continue to grumble about quality on the hand and about equity on the other hand. The thesis of this paper is to approach the problem from the angle of instructional materials with a focus on application of ‘applied scholastic’ …to optimize results. The argument here hinged on the fact that through effective use of instructional materials, quality learning can be achieved. Closely link to the issue of instructional material is how to use them which is the methodology and writers of this paper  specifically proposed the application of “applied scholastics method” as shall be seen shortly. Consequently the following questions suffice: what is instructional material? And what is quality in education? How best can instructional materials be applied to achieve maximum results in Nigerian tertiary education?.

Clarification of key concepts

Instructional materials:

Orakwe refers to instructional materials as information repositories from the society sourced to transfer the desired information to the learners during classroom instruction¹. In like manner, Agu views instructional materials as those apparatus of teaching which may include textbooks, workbooks, charts, audio visual aids, specimens and other relevant things that will attract students’ attention, and which should only be introduced at the appropriate time by the teacher². Similarly, Aramide and Bolarinwa opined that instructional materials have potentials for enhancing students learning³. Its role in teaching and learning is one of the most important and widely discussed issues in contemporary education policy. Education in this age has become widespread and as such, excessive oral teaching cannot be the key to successful pedagogy.

In the area of civic education, Igu observed that it is an activity based subject and therefore depends on instructional materials are central in the teaching and learning of civic education because no matter the efficiency of a teacher, effectiveness in lesson delivery cannot be guaranteed without use of instructional materials⁵. Esu, Enukoha and Umoren affirmed that Nigerians facilitate learning of abstract concepts by helping to concretize ideas and stimulate learners’ imagination⁶.

Quality: there is no generally agreed definition of this concept, since different definitions of quality are appropriate under different circumstances; but suffice to mention a few: thesaurus states that quality is excellence, conformance to specifications, conformity to requirements, fitness for use, product desire able attributes, and meeting expectations⁷. Armstrong and Patrick rightly hold that the approach of quality as excellence is derived from philosophy and borrows heavily from the great philosopher Plato from his discussion of beauty. According to this view, quality is synonymous with innate excellence⁸. These authors as cited by Kumar, Raju and Kumar observe that the word quality came into existence many years ago, though without any definite definition, but changing from time to time they maintained that many techniques were used to evaluate quality and to monitor production process control charts.

Meanwhile, from business point of view, to measure the performance of a business quality, standard is essential. When we consider the issue of quality education it would be seen that education is the most powerful weapon that could be used to change the world but has continued to encounter some difficulties in terms of assessment especially with the experience in Nigeria. Ruwa has observed that quality education, when applied to teaching and learning in schools, is an elusive concept because the criteria used to judge it are influenced by when, where, for whom and by whom⁹, while Peters as cited in Akinpelu, states that quality is the essential characteristics of a thing which  distinguishes them from other things¹⁰; but to place the concepts in clearer perspective and for the purpose of this paper, we shall rely on Ruwa’s position looking at quality education in terms of input and outcomes.

According to this source, pledging quality education from inputs entails measuring issues such as resources, programmes and cost with particular attention to pupil-teacher ration, class size, funding, teacher’s salaries, text books, curricular contents and so on. Then reference to the quality education in terms of outcomes are usually measured in academic achievements of students. This aspect is lacking in Nigeria, therefore constituting worry of writers of this paper. Following the analysis of concepts and issues above, one would have simply concluded that solution to this long standing problem is in focus but unfortunately it is still lingering. Writers of this paper therefore attempts direction of  …. “Applied scholastics”. Methodology.

As stated earlier, there has been continued concerns revolving around quality of education among Nigerians in last four decades or more. An overview of available literature on the issue of quality and quantity globally revealed that perceptions on educational development vary among developing and developed nations. The desire of most developing nations to have a greater educational development seemed to have focused on quantitative aspects. In Nigeria, as an instance, education is considered as an instrument ‘per excellence’ for effecting national development¹¹. Thus the major emphasis of Nigerian  educational policy and return have been on the quantity of education. On the other hand, educational researchers and policy makers who are influenced by educational developments in the developed countries emphasized the question of quality in education because they are mostly interested in qualitative aspects of educational development. Hence, the debate rages on while meaningfully learning is being truncated and jeopardized.

Furthermore, this continues debate between advocacies of quality and quantity education even attracted researchers and reports including that of world bank 2018 titled ‘schooling without learning’ the report revealed that the mere presence of physical educational institutions does not necessary results in learning and writers of this paper shares in this sentiment. It warned that millions of young learners in Nigeria and other low and middle income  may face the challenges of lost opportunity and lower wages in future and writers of this paper concluded that graduates of tertiary institution continue to suffer same without learning, education will fail to deliver on its promise to eliminate extreme poverty. World Bank report 2018¹². Pointed out that even after several years of schooling. Millions of children cannot read, write or do some basic numeracy. This learning crisis according to the report is widening social gaps instead of narrowing them.

What appears to be clear in the report is that there is an urgent need to align the quantity and quality/infrastructure of education in Nigeria if the objectives of schooling are to be realized. Writers of this paper strongly therefore advocates the adoption of the “Applied scholastics” approach to learning. In its submission, the reports holds that schooling is not the same as learning and that schooling without learning is not just a wasted opportunity but a great injustice. This may be the situation in Nigeria because one can see available public schools from primary, secondary to tertiary schools but there is little or no teaching and learning in reality. While the public is complaining of half baked graduates especially from public schools.

What is applied scholastics?: it is a study technology where a man is able to learn as he can learn and to know that which he has learn. It provides suitable foundation enhancing all educational efforts. This is also a guide to what teachers, tutors, trainers, parents and students can do to improve the quality of teaching and learning in their community and society. Advocate of this method argue that its broad use will achieved a world free from illiteracy where people can learn anything and be anything.

Why applied scholastics?: as early as 1980, Hubbard recognize the failing of the educational system. In answer to this crisis, he began developing an actual technology of learning to which to master any subject. To provide students of every age and educational level with the missing ingredient of much of modern education. The ability to learn how to learn. As mentioned earlier and as specified in national …… policy document. The end and goal of any society as it addresses the problem of education is to raise the ability, the initiative and cultural level, and with all of these the survival level of that society’.

Main thrust of Applied scholastics theory:

i. Hubbard s theories on education describe three barriers to learning ‘the first is the absence of mass, pertaining to the lack of physical object relating to a concept i.e if one is attempting to understand the function and operation of a car or a solar system, the printed page and spoken word are no substitute for the object itself. Lacking the object also … with a word can inhibit all understanding, if the mass of a subject is absent, the student will feel squashed, bent, such of spinning or reed, or bored. This is particularly the case with graduate of quantitative schools.

ii. The second is a steep or skipped gradient, meaning a necessary previous step, was skipped. Here when the student has not mastered prior skills before proceeding to more complicated or detailed step, the student feel a sought of confusion-reeling-moving or swaying as if they might fall. This is also the case with mass production of students, in most cases, the students in class are seen to far out number that specified in the policy document, so even where student missed a vital and important steps in the course of learning, the teacher hardly notices to talk of correcting the students. Such experience are hardly noticed amongst graduates in the developed nations who normally maintain standard. No wonder we experience high turn-out of half baked graduates from our public schools in Nigeria who are the worst casualties

iii. The third is the misunderstood word which necessitates looking up unclear word in the dictionary. A misunderstood word is a word which is not understood or a word which is wrongly understood. It can result in the student feeling blank, or washed out, not here, not there and soon and a sort of a nervous upset feeling after. We may not be surprise then that our graduates cannot stand boldly to defend their certificates after graduation. Today, most of our students rely on their phones to read, worst still the use of text message is been transferred during formal writing which is unfortunate because of a lot of errors.

Conclusion: From the analysis of issues involved in instructional materials with respect to the relevant achievement of educational goals. Provision of instructional materials is important but, this aside, it can be seen that mode of application also plays a vital role in the learn process, writers of this paper argue for applied scholastic model with emphasis on the three (3) cardinal principles proposed by Hubbard namely; absence of mass, consideration for skipped gradient  …….., clarifying misunderstood word. It is hoped that through this medium, effective and permanent learning can be achieved qualitatively and so development can be enhanced.

Recommendations

1. Government should ensure the provision of adequate and relevant instructional materials.
2. Teachers/Lecturers should ensure the application of the instructional materials as at when due as suggested by Hubbard’s theory.
3. Students and learners should step up their study habit as advocated by the applied scholastic theory.

References

1. Orakwe in Nworgu B.G (2006). Educational Research: Basic issues and methodology (2^nd          edition) 2006, Nsukka University Press Trust Publication pg 24.

2. Agun, I(1982). The place of Instructional Materials in curriculum development. Education and Development, 2 (503 – 510).

3. Aramide and Bolanuwa in Jibade, A. Principles and practice of Educational Technology (1997) Ilorin International Publishers limited pg 104.

4. Igu in Ibrahim, A. Instructional Materials: Journal of Teachers Periscope of NUT, Kogi State Univerisity 2000 Vol. 1(2), 27 -29.

5. Umendu, S.O(1981). The need to improve Instructional Strategies in Nigerian Secondary Schools Ifecheducation, 1 (1), 31.

6. Enokoha and Umren in Oshadumi, J.A(1988). Impacts of Instructional Materials on students performance, in Geography in secondary schools in Osun state. Un-published M. Sc. Thesis, University of Nigeria, Nsukka pg 64.

7. Thesaurus of English 2^nd Edition. Great Britain clowers Becods, Suffolk, 2004 pg180

8. Armstrong, E. And Patrick. Free Education and the question of Quality in Nigerian. http/relief/report/worldwidedevelopment report-2018-learning-realize-educations promise access 27 June, 2023

9. Ruwa, M. Tension between quality and quantity in education in Nigerian Education can the tension be resolved? Nigerian Journal of Educational Phylosophy of Education NJEP. Vol.32, October, 2021. Pg. 33

10. Peters cited in Akinpelu J.A(1981)., An Introduction to Phylosophy of Education, London: The Macmillan Press LTD …. Pg 180

11. Federal Republic of Nigeria(2013), National Policy on Education Nigeria (4^th  Edition) NERDC

12A. http/relief/report/worldwidedevelopment report-2018-learning-realize-educations promise access 27 June, 2023

12. Kumar M.P. Raju M.V.S. & Kumak, M.V.S. Quality of quality definition. An analysis. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology 2016. 5(3). Pg 42 – 148.

13. Hubbard, L.R(1972). Applied Scholastics International Education Services and materials 11755River view Drive. St. Loiuse, mission; USA.

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

Technical drawing (TD) is a universal language for engineers, technologists, and technical personnel, facilitating precise communication of design concepts and intent. Similarly, TD enhances learning and job performance within engineering and technology programs. However, the prevalence of exclusive passive teacher-centred methods in Nigerian schools poses a significant challenge to effective technical drawing instruction. Existing research recommends a shift from passive to active teaching methods to address this issue. This study aims to employ the dynamic form of peer instruction to overcome the limitations of passive approaches in technical drawing education in Nigeria. Specifically, the research seeks to identify factors related to 21st-century technical drawing skills, both hard and soft, suitable for integration into peer instruction. Through a qualitative research design, the study interviews 15 technical drawing educators (lecturers and instructors) in central Nigeria, selected through simple random sampling. The researchers adopted thematic data analysis, including transcription, coding, and content analysis, to explore and interpret the collected information. The findings reveal crucial factors, such as self-instructional materials, attributes of self-instructional materials, and literacy skills, suitable for integration into the independent learning aspect of peer instruction for basic technical drawing hard skills.

Additionally, the finding identifies factors like application, analysis, synthesis, learning, and life skills for integration into the dependent learning aspect of peer instruction for advanced technical drawing hard skills. This study represents an initial investigation, laying the groundwork for a more in-depth exploration of factors for practical integration into peer instruction for lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS). The outcomes of this research will empower educators to implement peer instruction effectively in teaching technical drawing.

Keywords: Technical Drawing, Passive Teacher-Centred Methods, Active Teaching Methods, 21st-Century Technical Drawing Skills, Hard Skills, Soft Skills, Independent Learning, Dependent Learning

1. Introduction

Technical drawing is a cornerstone in engineering, technology, and vocational and technical education, providing a precise language for communicating design concepts and intent. Effective teaching of technical drawing is paramount for preparing students in these fields. However, the prevalent use of exclusive passive teaching methods hampers the learning outcomes in technical drawing (Carlson et al., 2018; Menekse et al., 2013). Research indicates that shifting from passive to active teaching methods is imperative (Shwartz-Asher et al., 2022; Onwe and Uwaleke, 2018). This study advocates for adopting peer instruction, a proven active method for enhancing conceptual learning, problem-solving, and overall learning outcomes in physics, mathematics, engineering, and technical drawing courses (Schell and Butler, 2018; Kola, 2021; Miller-Young, 2013; Ogundola, 2017). The aim is to identify factors conducive to integrating 21st-century technical drawing skills, encompassing both hard and soft skills, into peer instruction.

21st-century technical drawing skills are crucial in the modern world, playing vital roles in learning and actual drawing production (Chu et al., 2016; Martinez, 2022). Acquiring both technical drawing hard skills and relevant soft skills ensures proficiency in the language of design (Cook et al., 2013). This study seeks to guarantee the acquisition of lower and higher-order technical drawing skills through independent and dependent learning aspects of peer instruction. The importance of this research lies in its potential to revolutionise technical drawing instruction, aligning it with contemporary demands and ensuring students are well-equipped for the dynamic landscape of engineering and technology.

• Related Works

Technical drawing skills in the 21st century involve proficiency in Computer-Aided Design (CAD), 3D modeling, and digital visualisation (Baronio et al., 2016; Siminialayi and Fomsi, 2023). 21^st-century skills enhance precision and efficiency in engineering design through digital tools. Similarly, proficiency in 21^st-century skills facilitates collaboration and communication among interdisciplinary teams, fostering innovation (van Laar et al., 2020). Also, 21^st-century TD skills impact technical and vocational instructions and performance by promoting critical thinking in technical education balancing practical skills with conceptual understanding (López et al., 2023). Thus, 21^st-century TD skills address challenges in effective teaching and learning methodologies, emphasising the need for adaptable pedagogical approaches (Workie, 2020; López et al., 2023).

In the 21st century, technical drawing skills development involves dependent and independent learning, each playing a significant roles. Independent learning, such as self-directed learning, provides foundational technical drawing skills and knowledge (van Laar et al., 2020). Similarly, guidance and feedback provided in self-directed learning benefit learners and foster a supportive learning environment. Thus, independent learning allows individuals to explore technical drawing beyond formal instruction, encouraging creativity and problem-solving (Özreçberoğlu and Çağanağa, 2018; Robb, 2008). Similarly, a personalised pace in self-learning will enable learners to progress at their own pace, tailoring their technical drawing journey to individual needs and preferences (Gamage et al., 2021).

Similarly, in 21st-century technical drawing skills development, dependent learning complements independent learning by fostering collaboration, essential for navigating complex technical projects and leveraging diverse expertise (van Laar et al., 2020). Also, dependent learning engages students in collaborative tasks that immerse them in critical discussions, refining their analytical skills for problem-solving in technical drawing (Li et al., 2018). Furthermore, dependent learning allows students to transfer the knowledge acquired independently, enhancing the practical application of technical drawing skills (Council, 2000). Role-play, a form of dependent learning, positively correlates with developing 21st-century skills relevant to technical drawing (Chen et al., 2023). Thus, dependent and independent learning contribute synergistically to holistic technical drawing skills development in the modern era.

Teaching methods emphasising dependent and independent learning play a crucial role in 21st-century technical drawing skills development. Studies affirm that combining independent and dependent education promotes comprehension of technical drawing material (Ogundola, 2017; Baronio et al., 2016). Similarly, the approach allows a shift from teaching to learning, creating a student-centred environment where teachers act as guides (Abdulrahman et al., 2020). Also, teaching methods catering to independent and dependent learning allow teachers to adapt their strategies to diverse learning preferences and platforms (Shwartz-Asher et al., 2022). Thus, teaching methods beyond simplistic approaches are crucial for fostering early learning skills to lay the foundation for advanced technical drawing abilities (Mazur, 2014).

This study favoured Peer instruction as it leverages pre-class activities for independent learning of lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) and in-class engagement for dependent learning of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), aligning with Bloom’s Taxonomy (Mazur, 2014). Peer instruction pre-class independent learning activities focus on foundational knowledge and comprehension (lower-order thinking skills) (Chen et al., 2023). In the pre-class part, students use materials to acquire a basic understanding, utilising resources and support as needed (Jensen et al., 2018). Similarly, in line with Bloom’s taxonomy, in-class sessions emphasise application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (higher-order thinking skills) (Chen et al., 2023). Thus, the in-class peer interaction, discussions, and collaborative problem-solving foster more profound understanding and critical thinking. Therefore, guided by Bloom’s Taxonomy, peer instruction strategically divides cognitive demands between independent pre-class learning and cooperative in-class activities, promoting a comprehensive learning experience (R. Orozco and E. Pasia, 2021).

The study strives to seamlessly integrate factors of 21^st-century TD skills into both peer instruction pre-class and in-class settings, strategically aligning with Bloom’s taxonomy to facilitate the acquisition of both lower-order and higher-order technical drawing skills. Also, the study identifies factors of 21st-century soft skills suitable for acquiring lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) and higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) within the framework of peer instruction for technical drawing. Ultimately, the overarching goal is cultivating an environment that nurtures deep technical drawing learning and equips students with essential intrapersonal and interpersonal skills for holistic learning experiences.

• Methodology

The research employed a qualitative approach, utilising semi-structured interviews as the primary data collection method. This approach involved technical drawing educators, encompassing both lecturers and instructors. The researchers chose semi-structured interviews as their suitability for eliciting respondents’ opinions on the study’s topic (Abdul Nifa, 2013). This method allowed flexibility, enabling researchers to ask questions and vary their sequence, ensuring a depth of information (Mashuri et al., 2022; Almeida et al., 2017).

Purposive sampling was employed to select 15 technical drawing educators from the Central Nigerian College of Education. This technique targeted competent educators with at least 15 years of experience in technical drawing instruction, ensuring a wealth of expertise (Bell and Bryman, 2007). The interview comprised two parts: Part A focused on gathering background information, while Part B involved an interview protocol to identify 21st-century technical drawing skills (both hard and soft) for integration into peer instruction.

Data collected from the interviews underwent transcription, coding, and inductive analysis. The researchers chose the qualitative content analysis method because it is a proven strategy for analysing textual data. Also, this study’s qualitative data analysis involved categorising data using inductively generated categories, applied after a meticulous close reading process. The study adheres to these qualitative methodologies to comprehensively explore factors influencing 21st-century technical drawing skills in the context of peer instruction in Nigerian Colleges of Education (Ivankova et al., 2006).

• Results

This study aims to thoroughly explore TD educators’ opinions on factors of 21st-century TD skills (hard and soft) suitable for integration into pre- and in-class parts of PI. Specifically, the researchers engaged participants with TD teaching competence and similar characteristics in the interview sessions. The researchers organised the results into pre-class independent learning (LOTS) and in-class dependent learning (HOTS). Consequently, LOTS and HOTS in this study equip students with 21st-century TD hard skills. Likewise, 21st-century TD soft skills in this study represent intrapersonal skills that students need to effectively learn 21st-century TD hard skills in the peer instruction’s pre- and in-class learning aspects.

The researchers then categorised results from respondents’ interviews into the two factors of PI: pre-class independent learning (LOTS) and in-class dependent learning (HOTS), with relevant 21st-century TD soft skills supporting the two phases. The researchers actively seek respondent viewpoints on elements that foster independent and dependent learning for 21st-century skills (hard and soft) in PI pre- and in-class. To protect the identity of the 20 respondents in the study, the researcher utilised TDE1–20 as identifiers, ensuring confidentiality and anonymity in reporting findings. The researchers systematically presented the outcomes of this study in Tables 1 and 2, corresponding to the two factors involving independent and dependent learning for 21st-century TD skills (hard and soft).

• Independent Learning for Lower-Order Thinking Skills

The researchers collected respondents’ opinions on factors of  21st-century TD skills (hard and soft) suitable for integration into PI pre-class to support independent learning to gain TD LOTS before the class. Table 1 below presents the three key themes: self-instructional materials, self-instructional material attributes, and literacy skills from thematic analysis of responses from 20 TD educators in this study. Also, Table 1 represents the 20 participants in this study with TDE1-TDE20 and Themes 1 – 3 for the three themes that emerged from thematic data analysis.

Table 1- Pre-Class Independent Learning Factors

	Basic 21st-Century TD Skills
	LOTS (TD Hard Skills)		TD Soft Skills
Participants	Theme 1 Self-Instructional Materials (SIM)	Theme 2 Self-Instructional Material Attributes (SIMA)	Theme 3 Literacy Skills (LITS)
TDE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20	Print Materials	Clear Content Presentation	Media Literacy Skills
TDE: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19, 20	Online Tutorials	Multimedia Integration	Technology Literacy Skills
TDE: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20	Digital Simulation Software	Practice Exercises.	Information Literacy Skills
TDE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19	Visual References	Self-Assessment and Feedback

Table 1 above, on theme 1 (self-instructional materials (SIM)), 18 of the 20 or 80% of technical drawing educators endorsed print materials as SIM suitable for peer instruction pre-class for independent learning to gain basic 21st-century TD skills. 75% of respondents believed online learning programs could effectively facilitate independent learning. 95% of the respondents regarded digital simulation software as an effective form of SIM in peer instruction pre-class. 85% found SIM with visual referencing effective in promoting independent learning of 21st-century technical drawing skills in the pre-class part of peer instruction at the Nigerian College of Education. These results suggest that technical drawing educators should prioritise developing or adopting relevant SIM to support independent learning of 21st-century technical drawing skills in the pre-class part of peer instruction at the Nigerian College of Education.

In theme 2, Self-instructional Material Attributes (SIMA) (Table 1), 80% of the TD educators emphasised that SIM with “clear content presentation” facilitates independent learning in PI pre-class; specifically, 75% of the 18 participants recognised that “multimedia integration” promotes independent understanding. Furthermore, a consensus among 95% of the participants indicated that “practice exercises” as a SIM attribute aids independent learning of LOTS. Additionally, 85% of the participants affirmed that “self-assessment and feedback” as a SIM attribute can boost independent practices for LOTS in PI pre-class. These findings underscore the pivotal role of SIM with relevant characteristics in fostering the independent acquisition of fundamental 21st-century TD skills in PI pre-class at the Nigerian COE.

On theme 3, literacy skills (LITS), 80% of respondents believed that media literacy skills could facilitate independent learning of basic 21st-century technical drawing skills for students in the peer instruction pre-class phase. Similarly, 75% of TD educators believed modern technology literacy skills can assist students in learning basic 21st-century TD skills in PI pre-class independently. Finally, 85% of the respondents want TD educators to promote independent learning of basic TD skills in PI pre-class by developing information literacy skills for students. These findings underscore the critical role of literacy skills, including media, technology, and information literacy, in facilitating independent learning of fundamental 21st-century technical drawing skills. These findings suggest that TD educators in Nigerian COE must prioritise building literacy skills to maximise students’ benefits from independent learning.

4.1       Dependent Learning for Higher-Order Thinking Skills

The researchers collected respondents’ opinions on factors of 21st-century TD skills (hard and soft) suitable for integration into PI class to support dependent acquisition of TD HOTS. Table 2 below presents the five key themes: application skills (APPS), analysis skills (ANAS), synthesis skills (SYNS), learning skills (LEAS), and life skills from thematic analysis of responses from 20 TD educators in this study. Also, Table 1 represents the 20 participants in this study with TDE1-TDE20 and Themes 1 – 5 for the five themes that emerged from thematic data analysis.

Table 2- In-Class Dependent Learning Factors

	Advanced 21st-Century TD Skills
	HOTS (TD Hard Skills)			TD Soft Skills
Participants	Theme 1 Application (APPS)	Theme 2 Analysis Skills (ANAS)	Theme 3 Synthesis Skills (SYNS)	Theme 4 Learning Skills (LEAS)	Theme 5 Life Skills (LIFS)
TDE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20	Mini-lecture (direct instruction)	Positive Learning Environment	Verbal Explanation	Critical Thinking Skills	Flexibility Skills
TDE: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20	Demonstration	Clarify Learning Objectives	Peer Discussion	Critical Thinking Skills	Leadership Skills
TDE: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19	Guided practices	Implement Peer Teaching Strategies	Implement Evidence	Communication Skills	Initiative Skills
TDE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20	Conceptual Questions	Promote Active Participation	Adopt Pedagogical Methods	Collaboration Skills	Productivity Skills
TDE: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20	Individual Response and Feedback	Provide Constructive Feedback Mechanisms	Foster Adaptive Expertise		Social Skills

Table 2 above on theme 1 (application skills), 95% of respondents supported integrating mini-lectures for introducing relevant facts, knowledge, and skills to promote the application of knowledge and advanced TD skills during PI class. Also, 90% believed that educators demonstrating procedures and skills assisted students in acquiring application skills. Similarly, 85% desired that educators engage students in guided practices to promote application skills. Furthermore, 90% required educators to administer conceptual questions, prompting students to apply knowledge. Finally, 95% wanted educators to ask students to individually answer concept test questions to ensure application skills in PI class. These findings underscore the importance of various instructional strategies, including mini-lectures, demonstrations, guided practices, and conceptual questions, to enhance application skills in technical drawing education during the peer instruction classroom phase in Nigerian COE.

In theme 2 (analysis skills), 95% of TD educators affirmed that fostering a positive learning environment improves students’ analysis skills. Similarly, 90% believed that educators clarifying student learning objectives is critical to enhancing analysis skills. Also, 85% supported the implementation of an established peer teaching strategy as a measure to improve students’ analysis skills. Furthermore, 90% of TD educators emphasised the importance of teachers promoting active participation to achieve improved analysis skills. Finally, 95% subscribed to the idea that teachers providing constructive feedback is essential for enhancing students’ analysis skills. These thematic data analysis results underscore the significance of a positive learning environment, clear learning objectives, peer teaching, active participation, and constructive feedback in fostering improved analysis skills in technical drawing education.

On theme 3 (synthesis skills), 95% of  TD educators believe encouraging students to verbally or graphically articulate answers during peer discussions improves synthesis skills. Also, 90% of educators affirm that encouraging peer-to-peer interaction is crucial for achieving synthesis skills. Similarly, 85% support the implementation of evidence-based strategies by educators to enhance synthesis skills in students. Furthermore, 90% advocate adopting proven pedagogical methods like peer instruction to achieve practical synthesis skills. Finally, 95% believe that fostering flexibility and adaptive expertise enables students to integrate new knowledge as needed, contributing to improved synthesis skills. These thematic data analysis results underscore the importance of verbal and graphical articulation, peer interaction, evidence-based strategies, proven pedagogical methods, and fostering flexibility in enhancing synthesis skills in technical drawing education.

On theme 4 (learning skills), 95% of TD educators believe that integrating activities promoting critical thinking improves learning skills for students. Also, 90% of educators think incorporating creative thinking activities could enhance learning skills in students. Similarly, 85% advocate for activities fostering peer-to-peer communication as effective measures for promoting learning skills. Finally, 90% of educators emphasise the importance of activities supporting collaboration as a requirement for promoting learning skills. These findings highlight the consensus among technical drawing educators on the positive impact of critical thinking activities, creative thinking activities, peer-to-peer communication, and collaboration in enhancing students’ learning skills in technical drawing education.

On theme 5 (life skills), 95% of TD educators believe that training students to be flexible thinkers positively impacts life skills. Also, 90% of educators think engaging students in leadership improves life skills. Similarly, 85% advocate for activities stimulating initiative skills as effective measures for developing life skills. Furthermore, 90% recommend activities that increase the production capacity of students as effective for building life skills. Finally, 95% of teachers subscribe to activities boosting social interaction as a measure for promoting life skills. These findings underscore the consensus among technical drawing educators on the importance of flexibility, leadership, initiative, production, and social skills in developing life skills to excel in technical drawing practices after school.

Fig. 1 – Conceptual Framework of Factors for the 21^st-Century TD Skills in Peer Instruction

The above framework in Fig. 1 presents the summary of factors of 21^st-century TD skills involving hard and soft elements suitable for integration into independent and dependent learning phases of peer instruction for LOTS and HOTS.

• Discussion of Findings

The findings in this study emphasise integrating 21st-century technical drawing (TD) skills, comprising both hard and soft elements, into peer instruction’s independent and dependent learning phases. Specifically, 21st-century TD hard skills in this study encompass lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) and higher-order thinking Skills (HOTS) as outlined in Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive learning (Sharma et al., 2020). According to Mazur (2014), the pre-class phase of peer instruction facilitates independent learning to gain LOTS or basic TD hard skills, while the in-class stage supports dependent education to gain HOTS or advanced TD hard skills. Additionally, the study underscores the importance of 21st-century TD soft skills in enhancing student learning during peer instruction’s pre- and in-class phases. Research indicates that cultivating soft skills, including communication, collaboration, problem-solving, and creativity in technical drawing, contributes to overall learning (Lauana et al., 2022; Widodo and Wiranti, 2021). Consequently, the findings highlight the significance of nurturing hard and soft skills to deepen students’ understanding of technical drawing courses (Turchyn, 2021). A balanced focus on hard and soft skills equips students with versatile competencies essential for addressing diverse challenges in the 21st century (Kim et al., 2019; Fazri et al., 2023).

In the pre-class phase of Peer Instruction (PI), this study emphasises the efficacy of diverse self-instructional materials (SIM) in cultivating lower-order thinking skills in technical drawing. Specifically, print materials such as textbooks and manuals, online tutorials, digital simulation software, and visual references are valuable SIMs, fostering independent learning. The research aligns with previous studies, highlighting the crucial role of varied SIMs in technical drawing (TD) education, encompassing both traditional and modern formats (dos Santos et al., 2018). These materials facilitate independent learning and act as substitutes for teachers in delivering foundational knowledge during the pre-class phase of PI (Mazur, 2014). Studies indicate that instructional materials significantly contribute to an enhanced, self-directed learning experience in technical drawing, positively impacting comprehension, teacher-student interaction, and the practical application of concepts (Chedi, 2015; Owoh, 2016). These findings underscore the versatility and significance of integrating a range of SIMs to elevate the overall learning experience in technical drawing.

Regarding SIMA, this study establishes that pertinent attributes, including clear content presentation, multimedia interaction, practice exercises, self-assessment, and feedback in a SIM, facilitate independent learning for students to acquire LOTS in the PI pre-class phase. This discovery aligns with research recognising the positive impact of instructional materials with relevant attributes on the autonomous comprehension of technical drawing concepts (Owoh, 2016; Abdulrahman et al., 2020). Specifically, research indicates that SIM with multimedia tools, perceptions and attitudes, drawing-to-learn intervention, and improvisation characteristics significantly improve communication, understanding, and academic achievement in technical drawing courses (McLaren, 2008; Heideman et al., 2017). Additionally, concerning literacy skills, this study underscores the need to develop students’ 21st-century media, technology, and information literacy skills to increase capacity for independent learning to gain LOTS in the PI pre-class phase. This integration equips students with intrapersonal skills crucial for TD LOTS acquisition independently. This finding aligns with existing research demonstrating that 21st-century literacy skills involving digital tools, fostering technological competencies, and adapting to modern educational paradigms enhance the autonomous learning experience in technical drawing (Onur and Kozikoglu, 2020; Gonzalez‐perez and Ramirez‐montoya, 2022). In conclusion, the study identifies SIM, SIMA, and literacy skills as critical factors for integration into the PI pre-class phase to support independent learning and help students gain fundamental 21st-century TD skills or LOTS independently.

In the class phase of Peer Instruction (PI), this study found activities aligning with HOTS of Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive learning effective for advancing 21st-century Technical Drawing (TD) skills in the dependent learning phase of PI. Specifically, this study found that the application of TD knowledge for HOTS increases for students with mini-lectures, demonstrations, guided practices, and concept tests integrated into the class part of PI. Existing studies affirm that incorporating these methods contributes significantly to a more comprehensive development of technical drawing skills within peer instruction classes (Jensen et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2022; Tullis and Goldstone, 2020). Specifically, studies show that concept tests in peer instruction classes contribute to active engagement, prompt feedback, interactive learning, and optimal group dynamics, collectively enhancing the application of technical drawing skills. Studies found that concept tests in peer instruction classes foster active engagement, prompt feedback, interactive learning, and optimal group dynamics, collectively enhancing the application of technical drawing skills (Tullis and Goldstone, 2020; Rivadeneira and Inga, 2023). Regarding analytical skills, this study found that a positive learning environment, peer teaching, constructive feedback, opportunities for peers to discuss ideas, and active learning increased analysis skills for students to gain HOTS in technical drawing. Similarly, research demonstrates that peer discussion periods in peer instruction facilitate active learning, improve conceptual understanding, and provide comparative assessment opportunities necessary for expediting the development of higher-order thinking skills in technical drawing (Knight and Brame, 2018; Schell and Butler, 2018; Zaid et al., 2018).

In synthesising skills, this study underscores that verbal explanations, active peer-to-peer discussions, evidence-based strategies, and adaptive expertise collaboratively contribute to a dynamic and practical knowledge synthesis within a peer instruction class, fostering higher-order thinking Skills (HOTS) in technical drawing. Research indicates that the synthesis of knowledge during peer instruction, coupled with learning innovations and technology integration, significantly propels the advancement of higher-order thinking skills among technical drawing students (Schell and Butler, 2018; Kwangmuang et al., 2021). Similarly, the study highlights the imperative for educators to integrate critical and creative thinking, collaboration, and communication learning skills into the Peer Instruction (PI) class component to foster intrapersonal skills necessary for acquiring Technical Drawing (TD) HOTS or advanced 21st-century TD skills. Studies indicate that peer instruction provides a dynamic platform for cultivating and applying the 21st-century learning skills crucial for success in technical drawing instruction (Babu Chiruguru, 2020; van Laar et al., 2017). Moreover, the study emphasises the practicality of developing 21st-century life skills in aiding students to acquire TD HOTS within peer instruction classes. Research reveals that students with relevant life skills experience improvements in problem-solving, critical thinking, inclusive learning, and the development of higher-order thinking skills in technical drawing instruction (Gupta, 2021).

In summary, this study recognises self-instructional materials, attributes of such materials, and literacy skills as suitable factors for integration into the pre-class phase of peer instruction. This integration facilitates independent study to acquire lower-order thinking skills in technical drawing or foundational 21st-century technical drawing skills. Likewise, the study identifies application, analysis, synthesis, learning, and life skills as factors for integration into the peer instruction class phase. This integration supports dependent education, enabling the acquisition of higher-order thinking skills or advanced 21st-century technical drawing skills.

• Conclusions and Recommendations

This study found two distinct phases of peer instruction that aligned with Bloom’s taxonomy for cognitive learning, encompassing both Lower Order Thinking Skills (LOTS) and Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) effective for TD instruction. These phases entail self-directed learning for LOTS in the pre-class phase of Peer Instruction (PI) and collaborative learning for HOTS during the in-class PI phase. Consequently, the study identifies LOTS and HOTS exposure in PI as a prerequisite for exposing students to relevant TD knowledge, skills and attitudes for 21st-century TD hard skills. Similarly, the research underscores the necessity of developing 21st-century soft skills, including literacy, learning, and life skills, to facilitate independent and collaborative learning for LOTS and HOTS in PI pre-and-class phases for TD courses. The study advocates for a balanced integration of LOTS, HOTS, and soft skills in PI for technical drawing instruction to guarantee a comprehensive skill set for academic success and prepare students for future professional challenges. Consequently, this study recommends integrating relevant self-instructional materials, self-instructional material attributes, and literacy skills to promote TD LOTS, essential for foundational 21st-century TD skills, during the PI pre-class phase.

Similarly, the study proposes integrating activities that promote application, analysis, synthesis, learning, and life skills into the in-class PI phase, targeting HOTS and advanced 21st-century TD skills. Ultimately, this research suggests capacity building for Technical Drawing (TD) educators in Nigerian schools to integrate 21st-century TD skills into Peer Instruction (PI), enhancing the overall quality of TD teaching.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The training of professional teachers in any progressive society is tied to the quality of programmes designed for utilization in her teacher training institutions. This necessarily follows that courses designed for the grooming of would-be-teachers are not to be treated with levity and/or kid’s glove. The inclusion of philosophy of education which is seen as an applied philosophy in institutions of teacher education is aimed at infusing into prospective teachers not only the spirit of inquisitiveness, but to open up their minds to different ways of finding solution to life’s challenges. However, there seems to be an attempt by policy-makers to expunge the discipline of philosophy of education from among teacher training programmes by lumping up foundational course contents. Therefore, this paper is designed to peep into what seems to be shallow course content of philosophy of education as enshrined in the Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) designed by National Universities Commission (NUC) for Nigerian University System (NUS). To this end, this paper is qualitative in nature; utilizing library documents, reputable journals, books, and various reports about the topic were used as a source of data collection. Some recommendations and suggestions were made at the end of the paper.

Keywords: Philosophy of Education, Teacher Education, Minimum Academic Standards

Introduction

Philosophy of education seems to be unpopular within the same epistemic community of teacher education. Consequently, in our teacher training institutions today, pre-eminence is often placed on disciplines with visual immediacy with the view that reality constitutes of our phenomenal world knowable through sense experience and experimentation. Courses in science education and social science education tend to meet such yearning within the corridors of teacher’s training institutions in Nigeria.[1] Arguably, one is at liberty to speculate that there is an attempt by policy makers to ensure that philosophy of education is finally shown the way out from the concert of intellectual disciplines. This position is hinged on the fact that in the recently approved Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS), philosophy of education seems not to be given the prime of place it deserves in teacher education. Unfortunately, philosophy of education cannot be relegated to the background without consequential adverse effect on the quality of teacher education. This was the view of Enoh[2] when he stated that:

There is an increasing threat to the quality of teacher education in this country which affects not only the quality of instruction in the classroom but also the quality of decision-making in the education system due to the continuous neglect of philosophy of education in teacher training programmes … It is my view that much of the nation’s educational problems emanate from the underutilization of philosophy of education in training teachers and in decision-making; that the policies and decisions which drive the education system and which to my best understanding have turned it into an educational wasteland are the direct outcome of this neglect.

Among other benefits, philosophy of education incites students/teachers to think clearly and carefully about what they are doing; the modesty associated with the discipline of philosophy of education forbids any to arrogate to oneself the repository of knowledge; and it helps at higher levels of policy making and setting goals for education.

The call for an overhauling of the entire educational practice in Nigeria to meet up with contemporary demands has gained traction in recent years. In this call, the desire for change in teacher education becomes imperative. Sadly, such imperativeness gives policy makers, that is, those with statutory obligation who both make policies and those who enact them into law the impetus to be front liners in the change process in most cases; without recourse to those who execute such policies. In seeking change, policy makers have asserted their right to unilaterally make changes in the educational enterprise by marginalizing both scholars and practitioners. This brings to mind the accusation leveled against National Universities Commission (NUC) by Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) of imposition of the Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) on Nigerian Universities. Among other things, the NUC was accused of not having a wide consultation before the migration from the Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) to the CCMAS. As a result, many important components of university academic programmes were completely phased out in the new 70% CCMAS and the 30% local content is considered insufficient to remedy the vacuum created by the CCMAS. To this end, in a press release by ASUU, it is believed that CCMAS portends serious dangers for quality university education in Nigeria.

As the title suggests, the concern of this paper is with the quality of teacher education programmes in the face of the newly released CCMAS documents. The aim is to isolate for analysis the course contents of a foundational course (philosophy of education) in line with what is obtainable in the new CCMAS. The imperativeness of looking into courses designed to groom would-be-teachers that would reflect the three domains of learning cannot be treated with kid’s gloves. This is so because the training of professional teachers in any progressive society is tied to the quality of courses designed for utilization in her teacher training institutions.

The Concept of Teacher Education in Nigeria

Teacher education occupies an important place in the enterprise of organised education and it is primarily concerned with the preparation of teachers both in pre-service and in-service/on-the-job training. The acquisition of professional skills of imparting knowledge at all levels of educational system cannot be treated with levity. This is because no educational system can rise above the quality of its teachers. Hence, teacher education could be defined as an “institutionalised procedure designed for professional training of those who engage in the act of teaching in preparation of competent teachers who are knowledgeable in specialized area of knowledge and professional practice”.[3] In other words, teacher education refers to professional education of teachers towards attainment of attitudes, skills and knowledge considered desirable so as to make them efficient and effective in their work in accordance with the need of a society at any point in time.[4] In Nigeria, teacher education has witnessed a catalogue of changes. Teacher education started during missionary/colonial era when there was no formal training for teachers. Today, teacher education programmes are classified into three levels based on training, acquisition and certification. They follow the understated sequence;

(a) Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE)

(b) Bachelor’s Degree in Education Programme

(c) Post-Graduate Degree in Education Programme

The minimum qualification for entry into the teaching profession in Nigeria today is the Nigerian Certificate in Education (NCE). The goals of teacher education in Nigeria are clearly enunciated in the National Policy on Education. The goals are as follows:

1. To produce highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teachers for all levels of the educational system.
2. To further encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers.
3. To help teachers fit into the social life of the community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national goals.
4. To provide teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate for their assignment and to make them adaptable to changing situations, and
5. To enhance teachers commitment to the teaching profession.[5]

To realise these objectives, certain institutions are charged with the responsibility to provide professional training for teachers. These are:

1. Faculties/ Institutes of Education of Universities
2. Colleges of Education
3. The National Teacher’s Institute (NTI)
4. Schools of Education in Polytechnics
5. National Mathematical Centre and
6. The National Institute of Nigerian Languages.[6]

Our focus in this paper is on Faculties/Institutes of Education since there is a recent change in the curriculum of teacher education in Nigerian universities as reflected in the new CCMAS.

Emergence of Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS)

The issuance of the Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) by National University Commission (NUC) for application in Nigerian University System (NUS) has been greeted with criticisms particularly from the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) in what they described as ‘hazy procedures’, which lacks inclusivity. Agreeably, the need for a review of the curricula of university education that would address local issues, and square with international standards with the ultimate aim of producing competitive graduates is imperative. Exerting its legal obligation to set minimum standards for the Nigerian University System (NUS), the first attempt was in 1989, which led to the emergence of the Minimum Academic Standards (MAS) for all programmes in Nigerian universities.[7]

Considered to be obsolete, NUC mooted the plans to review the MAS documents in 2001. After a hiatus of about three years, in 2004, the NUC developed outcome-based benchmark statements for all the programmes in Nigerian University System through a workshop that allowed for a wide consultation and far-reaching discussions by relevant stakeholders. Following comments and feedback from the universities to the effect that the Benchmark-style Statements were too sketchy to meaningfully guide the development of curriculum and inadequate for the purpose of accreditation, the Commission, in 2007 put in place a mechanism for the merger of the Benchmark-style Statements and the revised Minimum Academic Standards, which birthed the Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS).

Sadly, the meticulously and exhaustive consultation that characterised the issuance of the BMAS seems to be lacking in the process that led the CCMAS though NUC admits that the commencement of the process started in 2018. The recently approved Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) by the National Universities Commission (NUC) was hastened up and completed amidst the COVID-19 pandemic and there are fears that the Commission failed in due diligence. In fact, the Secretary General of the NUC admitted that:

Bearing in mind the need to adhere to covid-19 protocol as prescribed by the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), the Commission was compelled by prevailing circumstances to finalize the curriculum virtually … Each discipline and programme had NUC representatives who assisted panelists with all the tools and working materials. Several online meetings were held at programme level, where the real business of developing the CCMAS took place…[8]

In 2022, NUC finalised modalities of the CCMAS documents and issued it for use in Nigerian University System with seventeen (17) academic disciplines as against the fourteen (14) disciplines contained in the BMAS. The CCMAS documents are structured to provide for 70% of core courses for each programme, while allowing universities to utilize the remaining 30% for other innovative courses in their peculiar areas of focus. It is against this backdrop that it becomes imperative to peep into course contents of foundational courses in teacher education, particularly philosophy of education as this ought to have direct bearing on the quality of teachers to be produced with the new CCMAS.

An Overview of Philosophy of Education Course Contents in the CCMAS

The need for a constant review of a curriculum cannot be over emphasised. The basis for curriculum revision emerges from the need to achieve stated objectives effectively and  institutions saddled with such responsibility undertakes curriculum revision on regular basis to remove irrelevant aspects and to strengthen the weak ones in order to improve the effectiveness and quality of the entire system. In doing this, practitioners and professionals ought to be consulted. Unfortunately, among the forty three (43) reviewers and other NUC members that came up with the CCMAS, none represented philosophy of education. The resultant effect is that, the new CCMAS is skewed against core and foundational courses in teacher education programmes. This is attested to by ASUU in a press release titled ‘Imposition of Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) on Nigerian Universities’. Foundational courses in teacher education plays vital role in the grooming of teachers. Such courses include philosophy and sociology of education, educational psychology, history of education and principles and methods of teaching.

What are the course contents of philosophy of education, sociology of education, educational psychology and history of education as designated for the grooming of would-be-teachers in Nigeria in the CCMAS? This question is perhaps at the heart of this paper as it cannot be devoid of quality teacher education; and to provide an answer, it is pertinent to X-ray the minimum standards approved for use by NUC for Nigerian University System. Empowered by law to lay down standards for all programmes taught in Nigerian universities, the NUC first came up with the Minimum Academic Standard (MAS) documents as a major instrument of quality assurance in 1989; then the Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) in 2007; and today we have the Core Curriculum and Minimum Academic Standards (CCMAS) which is expected to take effect from 2023.

An examination of the basic elements of the operation of the benchmark minimum academic standards (BMAS) in education programmmes reveals that the course structure and synopses of common foundation courses of education degree programmes lumped sociology and philosophy of education together under the course title ‘Foundations of Education I’ and coded ‘EDU 102’ a two (2) units course. Sadly, the synopses and statement of the course contents of EDU 102 is nebulous so much so that it requires the intellectual competence of professionals to make sense of it; by bringing out the salient tenets in the form of learning experience(s). For example, the only part of the contents with allusion to philosophy of education states: “…An introduction to major sociological and philosophical ideas, which have influence”.[9] In comparison, there seems to be not only a change in nomenclature of the course titled ‘Foundations of Education I’, but a further lumping together of key foundation courses such as history of education, sociology of education, educational psychology and philosophy of education in the newly issued CCMAS documents.

From the CCMAS, one notices that the only course with reference to philosophy of education is entitled ‘Introduction to Teaching and Foundations of Education’ and coded ‘EDU 101’ a two (2) units course. From the learning outcomes of the course, it is observed that items 5, 7, 8 and 9 alluded to history of education in Nigeria, educational psychology, sociology of education and philosophy of education respectively.[10] And part of the course contents that bothers on philosophy of education states: “…Values of education, major tenets of idealism, realism, neo-thomism, experimentalism and existentialism and their applications in education”. Just like the abrogated BMAS, the course contents of philosophy of education as stipulated in the CCMAS requires the intellectual competence of professionals to sieve out of it what could be termed learning experience(s). While this may not be a problem to a trained philosopher of education, this could not be said of non-philosophers of education teaching the course in our institutions of teacher education. Enoh[11] once posited that philosophy of education: “has no content of its own, but arrogates to itself the mandate to challenge everything that other discipline ever do … thus leaving always those who attempt listening to them more confused than they ever were…” Whilst it is true that the study of philosophy (of education) requires the intellectual competence of learners; over the years, usurpation by non-philosophers dispensing its learning experiences to students in teacher education institutions in Nigeria may have added feather to the mystification of philosophy (of education) as a cryptic discipline.

Hurdles Facing Philosophy of Education in Teacher Education in Nigeria

The challenges bedeviling the noble discipline of philosophy of education seems to be multifarious ranging from repudiation of its methodology, usurpation by quacks, lack of practitioners among policy makers and many more. Babarinde[12] succinctly summarises the hurdles faced by philosophy of education as follows:

1. Proliferation of courses and dwindling expertise;
2. Quackery
3. Shallow content;
4. Inability and failure to defend the discipline against tyranny of socio-scientific disciplines in education;
5. Oppression and suppression of the discipline by colleagues in other discipline due to ignorance;
6. Declining/poor quality of research and publications;
7. Weak policy and advocacy;
8. Poor professional network and support;
9. Poor attitude to technology utilization.

With the recent attempt by policy-makers to attenuate philosophy of education and other foundational courses in teacher education, practitioners must wake up to the task of defending the discipline in the light of its many benefits. Such advocacy has the ability to heighten awareness both to policy-makers and usurpers (quacks) within the corridors of teacher training institutions teaching and mystifying the true essence of the discipline. The challenge of shallow content is not only connected with the absence of philosophers of education among policy makers/curriculum planners; but also as a result of lack of advocacy and awareness.

Towards a Robust Course Contents of Philosophy of Education

What is the scope of philosophy of education? Or put in another way, what ought to be the subject matter, contents, task or area of coverage of philosophy of education? Like many philosophical questions in education, there is no universally accepted answer. Opinions differ as to what should be the area of coverage in philosophy of education and some are of the view that philosophy of education has no content of its own. This notwithstanding, there are certain identifiable scope of the discipline though such a scope could not be said to be watertight. For clarity, suffice one to summarise the scope of philosophy of education as put forward by Azenabor[13], which includes the following:

1. Branches/Elements of Philosophy – Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics and Logic and their implications on education.
2. Values or Goals of Education which scope includes:
3. Educational aims, objectives and importance
4. The nature of human personality as he is capable of being educated.
5. The goal and character of the truly educated person
6. The abilities that human beings acquire in achieving this goal
7. The agents of education by which human beings are educated.
8. The development of Schools of Thought in Philosophy (Idealism, Realism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Existentialism) and their implications on education.
9. Philosophers of Education or Educational Thinkers, such as Froebel, Pestalozzi, Quintilian, Dewey, Montessori, Whitehead, Erasmus, Blyden, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Aquinas, Locke, Rousseau, Russell, Nyerere, Henry Carr, etc.
10. Central Concepts in Education, such as; Teaching, learning, Instructing, Conditioning, Training and Indoctrination.
11. Educational Theories or Theories of Philosophy of Education, such as, Humanism, Scientism, Progressivism, Essentialism, Perennialism and Re-constructionism.

Conclusion                  

The desire for change in teacher education is everywhere. There seems to be a consensus among educational practitioners of different genre, policy-makers and the general populace that quality of education at all levels is abysmally low and the need for an overhauling of the entire system becomes inevitable. This makes the review of the curriculum of the substratum of teacher education even more important because teacher training institutions are the lifeline of any educational system. The training of professional teachers in any progressive society is tied to the quality of programmes designed for utilization in her teacher training institutions. This necessarily follows that courses designed for the grooming of would-be-teachers are not to be treated with levity and/or kid’s glove. The inclusion of philosophy of education which is seen as an applied philosophy in institutions of teacher education is aimed at infusing into prospective teachers not only the spirit of inquisitiveness, but to open up their minds to different ways of finding solution to life’s challenges. Therefore, the focal concern of this paper is aimed at creating the necessary awareness why philosophy of education must be given the prime of place it deserve in the enhancement of higher quality teacher education in Nigeria.

Recommendations

Cognizance of the statutory obligation of NUC to set standards and assuring quality in the Nigerian University System, policy-makers ought to robustly consult professionals and practitioners in the daunting task of curriculum review. Even in instances when the role for practitioners and scholars are acknowledged, policy-makers tends to enact changes at the national or federal level while leaving to others the need to fix programmes at the local or institutional level. The need for the community of academics and professionals to reclaim a role and to pose a set of solutions cannot be over emphasised. It is thus recommended that this has to be done at the local level, rather than the national level and that the single measure of success will be student learning gains. Since the CCMAS provides for 70% minimum core courses for graduation, individual institutions ought to augment the remaining 30% by making enough room for philosophy of education be enriching its course contents. To this end, it is recommended that sound and seasoned philosophers of education be engaged by institutions of teacher education to guide and expose student/teachers to the leaning-experience(s) of philosophy of education. Having a fundamental knowledge of philosophy of education is not enough to teach it to others. It is a disservice and usurpation to engage non-professionals carry out a task they are not well suited. It is also recommended that EDU 101 entitled ‘Introduction to Teaching and Foundations of Education’ in the CCMAS be unbundled and the course content of philosophy of education be broadened to reflect the robustness it deserves. Lastly, members of Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria (PEAN) must rally together to ensure that the discipline of philosophy of education is not shown the way out of the podium of intellectualism in our institutions of teacher education in Nigeria. This they can do by ensuring that on their annual conferences, there are publications that stress the importance of philosophy of education in teacher training programmes; and reaching out to NUC and NCCE leaders to ensure that the discipline is given the prime of place it deserves.

Bibliography

1. Omena, E. (2020). Introduction to philosophy of education for teacher training Institutions in Nigeria. ABU Press, pp. 3.
2. Enoh, A.O. (2013). The neglect of Philosophy of Education and the spread of Nigeria’s educational wasteland. Spindrel Int. Printers, pp.4.
3. Rose, A.A., Anthonia, E.I., & Ikpi, I.A. (2014). Teacher training and teacher labour sustainability in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science: Vol. 29 (3), pp. 1-7.
4. Osuji, S.N. (2009). Teacher education curriculum in Nigeria in the perspective of lifelong education. The Journal of International Social Research: Vol. 2 (8), pp. 12-21.
5. FRN (2013). National policy on education. NERDC Press.
6. Okoli, N.J., Ogbondah, L.E. & Abdullahi, J.E. (2015). Preparing teachers for contemporary Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice: 6. No. (14), pp. 130.
7. NUC (2022). Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards for Nigerian Universities. Abuja: NUC Press, pp. 6.
8. Ibid
9. NUC (2014). Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards for Undergraduate Programs in Nigerian Universities. NUC Press, pp. 20.
10. NUC (2022). Op. Cit. pp. 41.
11. Enoh, A.O. (2013). Op. Cit. pp.5.
12. Babarinde, K. (2017). Rethinking the future of Philosophy of Education in Nigerian tertiary institutions. A Pre-Conference Paper Presented at PEAN Annual Conference, Organized by Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba Lagos State on Tuesday 24^th – Friday 27^th October, 2017.
13. Azenabor, G.E. (2017). Bridging the gap between theory and practice in education: Towards an indigenous Philosophy of Education for Nigeria. Lead Paper Presented at the 37thAnnual Conference of Philosophers of Education Association of Nigeria (PEAN) on 24th – 27th October, 2017 At the Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria.

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[1] Omena, E. (2020). Introduction to Philosophy of education for Teacher Training Institutions in Nigeria. Zaria, Nigeria: ABU Press, pp. 3.

[2] Enoh, A.O. (2013). The Neglect of Philosophy of Education and the Spread of Nigeria’s Educational Wasteland. Spindrel Int. Printers, pp.4.

[3] Rose, A.A., Anthonia, E.I., and Ikpi, I.A. (2014). Teacher Training and Teacher Labour Sustainability in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science: Vol. 29 (3), (Mar. 2014), pp. 1-7.

[4] Osuji, S.N. (2009). Teacher Education Curriculum in Nigeria in the Perspective of Lifelong Education. The Journal of International Social Research: Vol. 2 (8), Summer 2009.

[5] FRN (2013). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

[6] Okoli, N.J., Ogbondah, L.E. & Abdullahi, J.E. (2015). Preparing Teachers for Contemporary Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice: Vol. 6. No. 14. (2015), pp. 130.

[7] NUC (2022). Core Curriculum Minimum Academic Standards for Nigerian Universities. Abuja: NUC Press, pp. 6.

[8] ibid

[9] NUC (2014). Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards for Undergraduate Programs in Nigerian Universities. Abuja: NUC Press, pp. 20.

[10] NUC (2022). Op. Cit. pp. 41.

[11] Enoh, A.O. (2013). Op. Cit. pp.5.

[12] Babarinde, K. (2017). Rethinking the Future of Philosophy of Education in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions. A Pre-Conference Paper Presented at PEAN Annual Conference, Organized by Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba Lagos State on Tuesday 24^th – Friday 27^th October, 2017.

[13] Azenabor, G.E. (2017). Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice in Education: Towards an Indigenous Philosophy of Education for Nigeria. Lead paper presented at the 37thAnnual Conference of Philosophers of Education Association of Nigeria (PEAN) on 24th – 27th October, 2017 At the Faculty of Education, University of Lagos, Nigeria.

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

It is an undeniable fact that the foundation or the beginning of any life endeavour has to be made strong in order to achieve a sustainable success in the target endeavour. It is in the vein of this line of thought that this paper attempts to explain the laying of a solid foundation for Nigerian tertiary education. Using philosophical research method, the paper explains how the philosophical concepts of skepticism and certainty can be adopted to early childhood education as a way of laying a solid educational foundation which will eventually lead to the achievement of quality in Nigerian tertiary education. The treatment of the application of skepticisms and certainty in early childhood education is analysed in the area of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor development of children which revealed that children at early years learn better with learning aids. Certainty is applied to children’s learning with the use of various developmentally appropriate teaching aids. Based on the polemics of the paper, it is recommended that the application of skepticism and certainty should be utilised in the learning of children at early years as a way of laying a good foundation for Nigerian tertiary education.

Keywords: Skepticism, Certainty, Philosophy, Early Childhood Education, Teaching aids.

Introduction

This paper attempted the application of the concepts of skepticism and certainty in philosophy to early childhood education as foundations for quality tertiary education in Nigeria.  Early childhood education being the foundation-laying level in educational pursuits needs to be well nurtured for the eventual quality tertiary education. There is no gainsaying the fact that the importance of higher education is enormous as the production base for Nigeria’s manpower among other noble functions. Another fact that cannot be gainsaid is that, if the higher education has to be the one of great quality, efforts have to be made to give a strong commitment to the other levels which serve as prerequisites for admission of students into higher institutions. Of all the levels that are prerequisites levels, early childhood education is the foundation, as it is the first level of education. This level can be compared to the foundation of a building which needs to be done well in order to have a strong building.

The need to have a strong foundation in any human endeavours for assured quality future is captured in a Yorùbá adage, “Wọ́n ní, ‘amúkùn-ún, ẹrù rẹ wọ́’, ó dá wọn lóhùn, ó ní, ‘òkè lẹ̀ ń wò, ẹ ò wo ìsàlẹ̀” translated as, “They said to a lame person, “the load you are carrying on your head is bent, the lame person replied them that they said so because they did not focus  downwards but only concentrated on the upper side. This analogy in relation to the thrust of this paper asserts that before one can have a good finishing, the start has to be good as well which all foreground the need to have a solid early childhood education in order to have a quality higher education. This is also captured in the saying that, the traces and signs of a good Sunday will be known right from Saturday. To achieve the purpose of the thrust of this paper, speculative, normative and analytic philosophical methods are utilised in the study of the use of skepticism and certainty in early childhood education for a quality higher education in Nigeria. Speculative method as a systematic thinking is combined with normative method, an axiological-natured method which dwells on standard of values on what is right or wrong, thereby giving prescription on actions that can be considered right or not in the application of skepticism and certainty in early childhood education as a foundation for quality Nigerian higher education. The speculative and normative methods served as backgrounds and complements for the general use of analytic method, which is a breaking down of complex concepts for the purpose of examination and clarification in clearer form.

 For a clearer analysis, this paper was delineated into sections starting with this introduction. After this, the definitions and descriptions of skepticism and certainty were given and treated in line with their connection to education. The need for using skepticism and certainty in ECE was discussed which led to a description of the use of skepticism and certainty in ECE as a foundation for quality tertiary education in Nigeria. 

Subsequently, the various ways by which the concepts of skepticism and certainty can be utilised in early childhood education for laying solid foundations for quality tertiary education were discussed, which include the incorporations of the concepts in the pedagogies of children in their cognitive, affective and psychomotor stimulations which all served as means of preparing children for quality higher education for the benefits of the children and Nigeria as a whole. Based on the polemics of the paper, a conclusion was later drawn in addition to a recommendation for a strong commitment towards early childhood education which would culminate to quality higher education in Nigeria.

Clarification of Concepts

Early Childhood Education: The level and process of early childhood education (henceforth, ECE) has engaged the attention of many philosophers but for time and space economy, the descriptions of ECE according to Socrates and Froebel were treated in addition to the conception of ECE by Nigerian government. Starting from Socrates, he was quoted to have said that the young should be taken care of first, in order for them to be the best possible adults just as a good farmer properly took care of the young plants first, and after this, of others as well.[1] The comparison of young children by Socrates to young plants suggested an early childhood care. In clearer terms, his idea is that, children at their early childhood periods should be taken care of, so that they can be the best adults possible. In another instance, Socrates was quoted to have said that compulsion should not be used in educating children as it was counterproductive in the learning of children. He emphasised the use of play and other fun-filled methods in imparting knowledge to children which he called amusements, and that, it was only through play as a method that positive results could be achieved which he called,  the natural bent. That is, a kind of learning that is fun-filled which achieve the best result for children.[2]

Froebel asserted that each child at birth has internal spiritual essence which were brought into external manifestation through the child’s self-activity. He made the following postulations on child’s learning at an early stage:

1. Learning started as soon as a child’s consciousness begins. This means that education of the child started at birth.
2. He created the idea of kindergarten which according to him means a garden of children where children can observe and interact with nature, and a garden where they can grow and develop in freedom.
3. Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood due to its ability to make the child express himself/herself freely.
4. The child’s health, physical development, the environment, emotional well-being, mental ability, social relationships and spiritual aspects of development are very important.
5. Many construction toys were developed by Froebel. The most popular of his invented toys are gifts/ball, cylinder, cube and the building blocks.[3]

The deduction from the two philosophers examined is that ECE is very important. Learning begins at birth and should be given a strong commitment in order to have a strong and sustainable future for the society. Aside the quoted philosophers, Nigeria as a country also has its own description of early childhood education as contained in its national policy on education. Nigeria’s early childhood education was described as the care, development, and education given to children up till four years in a crèche or nursery.[4]  The objectives of this level of education in Nigeria include preparing  the child for primary school in the form of maintaining an easy change from home to primary school, providing  committed care for children while their parents are at work, that is, standing in the position of the parents, pending when the parents will return from their official engagement, providing moral and social training, and using  methods of music, toys, art and nature study for the development of spirit of inquiry and creativity in the child, and the teaching of numbers, letters, colours and shapes through play method. For the purpose of this paper, early childhood education as described in Nigerian national policy on education is the definition adopted.

Skepticism and Certainty Explicated

On the surface level, when it is said that one is skeptical about something, it means one doubts the authenticity or the truth of that particular fact. The meaning of skepticism in philosophy also goes in line with an act of doubting something. Skepticism, in western philosophy is the attitude of doubting knowledge.[5] Philosophical skepticism arose when there are some degree of doubt regarding claims that are elsewhere taken for granted. That is, there is doubt because the views are not justified.[6] Synonyms for skepticism include doubt, distrust, mistrust, query, reservation, suspicion, uncertainty and disbelief.[7] Deductions from the philosophical definitions of skepticism revealed that claims are not just accepted in philosophy but have to be in the first instance doubted so as not to accept the claim dogmatically which is not in congruence with philosophical tradition.

A type of skepticism is philosophical skepticism, which is an approach that questions the possibility of certain knowledge. Philosophical skepticism is further sub-divided into two categories of radical philosophical skepticism, which is a type of skepticism that denies that knowledge or rational belief is impossible and urge us to suspend judgment on many or all controversial matters. The second type of philosophical skepticism, moderate philosophical skepticism claims that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about non-empirical matters, such as weather God exists or not, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. [8]

Aside the philosophical skepticism and its subtypes, another type of skepticism is known as scientific skepticism whichadvocates for testing beliefs for reliability by subjecting them to systematic investigation using the scientific method to discover empirical evidence for them. There is also Cartesian skepticism, propounded by a modern philosopher, Descartes, whose ideas were considered revolutionary and radical. He was one of the first to question the existence of the world through his skeptical doubt. His skepticism doubts not only bodily things but also takes a universal form. It does not only question events and experiences but also the existence of the world.  The views of Descartes if examined suggests a thorough scrutiny of events/phenomenon before a partial or complete certainty can be achieved.

Of all the types of skepticism, radical skepticism was singled out for critique by St Augustine. Radical philosophical skepticism which borders on suspension of belief was critiqued   by a famous middle ages philosopher, Augustine who criticised the radical aspect of philosophical skepticism using an illustration of an adultererwho suspended belief that adultery was bad and committed adultery with another man’s wife because it was persuasive to him.  He stated further that under radical skepticism, this man could not be charged because he acted on what was persuasive to him without asserting belief.

What can be deduced from the position of Augustine on radical skepticism is that, while other types of skepticism can be said to be in congruence with morality and development, it is dangerous to imbibe the teachings of radical skepticism as it may lead to unproductive outcome. One may ask that, if it is said that it is in order to exercise doubt on any phenomenon which many people refer to as benefit of doubt, how can the doubter then assert the authenticity of the doubted claim or belief as it does not add to knowledge if the claim remains doubted without any method of ascertaining which is the truth. The adventure in this aspect leads to what is called certainty in philosophy which is analysed in the next subheading.

Certainty Explicated

Certainty also known as epistemic certainty or objective certainty is the epistemic property of beliefs which a person has no rational ground to doubt. One standard way of defining certainty is that a belief is certain if and only the person holding that belief could not be mistaken in holding that belief.[9] Certainty was also defined as a lack of doubt about some state of affairs. An example was given that, if one has no doubt that the earth is the third planet from the sun, then, the person can be said to be certain of that fact.[10] Like skepticism, certainty is also of various types. Psychological certainty means that the person holding the belief is supremely convinced of its truth. Certain issues in this sense is defective as the person holding the belief is psychologically incapable of giving the belief up. For example, a mother might be incapable of giving up a belief that her child committed murder and therefore tortured by doubt. Aside the psychological certainty, there is also a form of certainty known as, epistemic certainty in which the belief in this sense has the highest epistemic status which may be and may not be accompanied by psychological certainty.[11] 

The deductions from the concept of certainty are, one, when one is sure of a fact, then one is certain about it. Two, psychological certainty is not reliable as the person involved might have positioned his/her mind to believe that a claim is certain even if not so, just like  the example given of a woman who was incapable of giving up a belief that her child committed murder and therefore tortured by doubt. Drawing inferences from these assertions on skepticism and certainty, it can be stated that skepticism is a very useful tool to ascertain knowledge.  That is, after one has exercised doubt on certain claim, the doubt will then spur the next action of finding a way of proving the doubted claim, which leads to the attainment of certainty. Without going into complexities of involving the complex types of skepticism and certainty – in this aspect, referring to radical skepticism and psychological certainty which may be defective in bringing out the best from the two concepts, it can be said that the concepts of skepticism and certainty in philosophy is a process of arriving at a confirmed knowledge. That is, the act of being skeptic leads to the act of being certain. In the light of these, the educational usage of skepticism and certainty in any educational settings can be illustrated in the form of:

Science Practical: The science students in various institutions are in the habit of conducting practical to achieve certainty. This comes under a form of skepticism known as scientific skepticism whichadvocates for testing beliefs for reliability by subjecting them to a systematic investigation by using the scientific method to discover empirical evidence for them. It is because there was skepticism that led to the quest for evidence to achieve certainty. For example, in Agricultural Science, it is said that it takes three months for maize to reach harvest time. Being skeptic about it is fine and a practical can confirm or debunk this by planting maize’s seeds and monitors its growth. If it is confirmed, this leads to certainty that it takes three months for maize to reach harvest time.

The Use of Teaching Aids: A pupil is told that two plus two will give four. This can be doubted by the child and therefore the teacher can make the pupil and himself be certain by using teaching aids as can be exampled in the use of counters. Two stones and another two stones can be counted together to achieve certainty that 2 plus 2 = 4.

Research Work: All research works have their method of reliability and validity test to be certain that the research measures what it is supposed to measure, and this is another area where skepticism leads to certainty. The certainty after running the validity and reliability tests will then lead to certainty that the research can measure what it is supposed to measure in addition to being reliable. The next subheading treated the need for using skepticism and certainty in ECE and thereafter explained the use of skepticism and certainty in ECE as a foundation for quality tertiary education in Nigeria. 

Issues with Existing Teaching Methods in Early Childhood Education

The common methodology with children’s teaching in Nigeria has been that of rote learning.  Rote learning is a kind of system whereby the caregiver/teacher stands in front of the class, say something and ask the children to say after him/her. This method is a form of parroting in which certainty cannot be ascertained whether all the children understand the lesson or not. In the aspect of cognitive gains, there may be some gains but one is not sure that all the children benefited. In the area of affective learning, efforts have not been particularly geared toward ascertaining the emotion status of children as the rote learning could be so rowdy that the teacher may not take care of the emotional status of all the children and a fact is that, when the emotion is affected, there cannot be effective learning in line with a Yoruba proverb, “Inú dídùn ló n ń mórí yá” translated as, “Happiness boosts emotion”.

On the psychomotor gains of children,  most of the nursery schools which are in the hands of the private sector operate in uncompleted buildings and unsaved environment without enough space which do not give room for children’s play activities to ascertain  certainty of  psychomotor fitness  of children. Play equipment that can ascertain children’s fitness like merry-go-round, see-saw, swing, and the like are lacking in many of the ECE centres. Operating ECE programmes where there is no appropriate playground in terms of space, well grassed field, suitable and safe play materials are impediments to ascertaining the psychomotor gains of children. It is in the light of all these doubts and certainty on children’s learning that this paper is conceived as an explication of the merits in applying skepticism and certainty in children’s learning for effective learning outcome. 

The Application of Scientific Skepticism and Episteme Certainty in Early Childhood Education

In order to lay a solid foundation for Nigeria’s qualitative higher education, the foundational level of education, which is the early childhood education needs to be given committed attention by stimulating and developing the domains of learning in children, which leads to a suitable beginning for a quality higher education. The application of skepticism and certainty in their simplest forms of scientific skepticism and epistemic certainty can be suitably applied with children at their early years which are treated in line with the three domains of learning of cognitive, affective and psychomotor development in the next subheading.

Application of Scientific Skepticism and Episteme Certainty in Cognitive Aspect of Children’s learning.

In applying the concepts of skepticism and certainty in children’s learning to ascertain cognitive gains, examples of literacy and numeracy learning are given thus: In teaching the children the numerals, take one to ten for example, skepticism can be done and certainty achieved in the form of using big, colourful plastic-made version of each of the figures. The figures are then shown and given to children which is a way of achieving certainty. As children admire and play with the figures, they are getting used to the shapes of the figures and learn better which eventually leads to certainty. In teaching simple addition, skepticism and certainty can also be achieved in form of using counters like bottle tops. For instance, 4 + 4 can have the arrangement of four bottle tops separately and counted together which made the child ascertain the answer as 8. Small sticks or stones can also be used as counters.

The usefulness of exercising skepticism and achieving certainty by the use of these teaching aids is particularly useful in ECE as children at early years learn better when teaching aids are used to ascertain the learning. The step before the use of teaching aids in the first instance can be said to be the skeptic stage but ascertained by using teaching aids to remove all skepticism and this stage can be called the certainty stage. In teaching subtraction, 4 – 2 can be done using same process by having the children take four stones/sticks/bottle tops as the case may be and thereafter remove two out of the four and be made to count the remaining ones which are two. In the same vein, the literacy aspect can also follow same process of application of skepticism and certainty. For instance, while teaching the children the letters of the alphabet, the letters can be converted into a song which made the lesson interesting and permanent as children are in love with songs. While they are singing, learning also takes place simultaneously.

Application of Skepticism and Certainty in Affective Aspect of Learning

The social and emotion of children can also be stimulated using skepticism and certainty. For instance, a handler of children is into skepticism on whether the children are happy or not, this can be ascertained through the use of songs. An example of such songs goes thus:

If you are happy and you know clap your hands (X 2)

If you are happy and you know, and you really want to show,

If you are happy and you know clap your hands.

The certainty tool in this song to test the emotions of children can be noticed from the response of each of the children. For instance, a child that is not clapping or not singing has his/her emotions tampered with in a way which can be in the form that, the parent at home did not treat the child well, did not give the child food or the child is ill. After the achievement of certainty has taken place, the caregiver/ teacher of children takes appropriate actions.

Application of Skepticism and Certainty in Psychomotor Aspect of Learning

Another area of the use of skepticism and certainty in ECE for laying the foundation of quality higher education is in the area of the physical development of children. The certainty in the psychomotor wellness of children of early years’ class can be achieved with the use of diverse play equipment including merry-go-round, swing, see-saw, and slide. In using a see-saw for example, the paly equipment is made in such a way that it can take two children at a time and each child exerts weight/force where he/she sits which made him /her lift the other child up and vice versa. As for slides, each child climbs to the top of the slide and slides down as dictated by the sloppy structure of the material. All these physical exercises have a way of developing the larger muscles of children, known as gross motor development. There are also exercises that can stimulate the small muscles known as fine motor skills. The development and stimulation of fine motor skills in children can be done through the methods of scribbling, writing, drawing, and using scissors to cut papers. These learning processes are in the veins of giving developmentally appropriate skills and development to children in preparing them for other levels of education which terminates at tertiary education level.

Recommendations

• Based on the polemics of this paper, it is pertinent that care and education of children should be accorded priority, being the foundation level of education. Such priorities include the use of appropriate pedagogies, especially the system of skepticism and certainty as treated in this paper in order to be certain that the foundation education was not only given but given appropriately in such a way that all skepticisms regarding the foundation have been removed and there is certainty that a solid foundation has been laid for Nigeria’s higher education.
• There is the need for a well-coordinated inspection of early childhood education centres which are presently in the hands of the private sector in which many of them are after the money they want to make from parents and paying little or no attention to the issue of certainty on the education of the children
• Government’s responsibilities to maintain standard in ECE centres should include a periodical workshops for the owners and the teachers of the children’s schools and sensitise them on the need to maintain standard as discussed in this paper.

Conclusion

Attempts have been made in this paper to treat the concepts of skepticism and certainty in philosophy as useful tools in ECE for laying a solid foundation for Nigeria’s higher education. The study revealed that skepticism which leads to certainty is useful in education endeavours and has been applied in research, the use of teaching aids and science practical. The study also revealed that the use of skepticism and certainty can be applied in ECE to aid children’s learning in the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning which subsequently culminates to laying quality foundations for Nigerian Tertiary Education.

References

Dictionary.com. (2023) Synonyms of Skeptism. https://www.dictionary.com (Accessed, October 14, 2023)

Early Education. (2021) Fredrick Frobel. earlyeducation.org.uk. (Accessed, October 14, 2023)

Federal Government of Nigeria. (2013) National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC.

Frame, J.M. (2012) Certainty. frame-poythress.org. (Accessed October 13, 2023)

Goodreads. (n.d.) Quotes by Socrates. https://www.goodreads.com (Accessed, October 14, 2023)

Plato, MLA. (1943) The republic. New York: BOOKS Inc.

Pritchard, D. (n.d.) Contemporary skepticism. iep.utm.edu. (Accessed October 18, 2023)

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.  (2019). Skeptism. https://plato>stanford.edu>entry. (Accessed, October 14, 2023)

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2019). Certainty. https://plato>stanford.edu>entry  (Accessed, October 14, 2023)

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[1] http://www.literature page.com> readsocratesideaofearlychildhoodeducation (Accessed May 29, 2023)

[2] MLA Plato, The Republic ( New York: BOOKS, Inc, 1943)

[3] Early Education. Fredrick Frobel, earlyeducation.org.uk. 2021(Accessed, Jan 27, 2023)

[4] Federal Government of Nigeria, National Policy on Education (NERDC; Lagos. 2013).

[5] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Skeptism. https://plato>stanford.edu>entry

[6] Duncan Pritchard. Contemporary skepticism. iep.utm.edu(Accessed October 18, 2023)

[7] Dictionary.com Synonyms of Skeptism. https://www.dictionary.com

 

[9] Ibid pg 4

[10] John M, Frame, Certainty. frame-poythress.org. 2012(Accessed October 13, 2023)

[11] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. “Certainty” https://plato>stanford.edu>entry