Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The mission of universities in Nigeria has long been understood to include service to the public good healthy academic environment and effective institutional autonomy. In order to achieve this significance role, Nigerian universities need to be granted full institutional autonomy and academic freedom to make decisions related to their institutional missions. The concept of institutional autonomy is found in 1999 Nigerian constitutional law and National Policy on Education which spelt out basic freedom to determine academic grounds in Nigerian education. The interpretation of areas enshrined in the country constitutional blueprint and section five of her National Policy on Education does not give any significant effects on real implementation of academic freedom of Nigerian universities in three basic areas of interest that include academic, financial and administration. The threats are fueled by increasing skepticism of the federal government about the role of universities in society and about the roles of expertise and institutions in general. Nigerian universities are grossly under/miss funded by the government, especially some states universities. In order to reclaim our mandate of quality and standards at the higher levels of education, this article recommend among others that Nigerian universities needs to be given full and uninterrupted academic, administrative and financial autonomy in order to sustain the system.  

Introduction

The key element that has been the recent focus of university education reform especially in third world nations is university governance. Third world nations with Nigeria inclusive recognized the importance of university education as means towards achieving all her developmental strategies. It is based on these views that Nigerian constitutional blueprint and National Policy on Education section (5) article (85) of 2013 reversed edition spelt out the relevance of academic autonomy and freedom of universities from undue interference¹. Institutional autonomy is the process of how universities define their institutional goals and implement policies and programme, manage and monitoring their achievements. It is also believed that universities having defined their expected goals and objectives, all Faculties, Departments, Lecturers and students are to be granted full academic freedom to teach and learn in a free and fair environment without constraints. The prime factor of granting autonomy is to make interaction between educational institutions and public authorities determine the nature of governance that will be suitable to all irrespective of gender. Autonomy is concerned with the relationship with institutional vice chancellors, lecturers, students, university board members and other non academic staff. Universities Vice Chancellors measure how freely universities can take decisions on the context of the rules and regulations that shape each university system. There is limited academic freedom among Lecturers and students of universities cut across. There are three basic dimensions of autonomy and academic freedom that mainly characterizes an institution to be known and called an autonomous university these include;

1. Academic autonomy, this explains the degree of freedom in decision making and action on academic issues that directly affects lecturers, students and non academic staff.
2. Financial autonomy, this implies the degree of freedom in decision making on financial issues and their implementation independently without any intervention
3. Human resources autonomy, this also explains the degree of freedom in decision making on human resources management which need to be enjoyed by all universities.

Institutional autonomy and how it is perceived by the university community are considered important drivers of change, how universities are managed is one of the most crowning factors towards meeting up with our developmental plans. In more sense, there is a global tendency to grant more autonomy to universities to be responsive to the changing needs of social, economic and also change the labour market environment. This has been coupled with developing regulatory framework to enable the government to provide quality assurance and to develop capacity to meet up with stated national goals of education at this stage.

Therefore, threats to academic freedom are highly contextual and depend on the specific context of each democratic nation. For instance, in Nigeria, concerns have been raised severally on university autonomy which up till now has not be successful due to government’s efforts interference and regulatory powers on the academic affairs of some universities, especially the states universities.

Academic freedom and institutional autonomy are key features of democratic societies¹. The fundamental principles of the Nigerian universities underlie the need for institutions to be independent of political authority and fair control of economic power that intervened in most strategic functions in the areas of appointment of board members and other governing councils. The questions of how and when should it be drawn to protect universities from undue interference with regard to decisions about educational mission? What are the logically necessary conditions that would help in the implementation of institutional autonomy and academic freedom in Nigeria?

The Concept of University Autonomy

The concept of autonomy is defined as the process of authoring one’s own world or activities without being subjected to the will of other external forces. It is the struggles to become the author of one’s own decision making and action creatively to oneself in pursuing the set out goals independently. From the above, Kant defined autonomy as the ability to know what moral values requires of us and function not as freedom of pursuing our ends, but the power of the agent to act on objectives and universally valid rules of conduct certified by reasons alone²

Autonomy from the above implies that an autonomous being is the one who is equipped with all the moral values and skills that enable him to establish himself without undue constraints. It  is an age-long debate across the globe especially in the area of human education. The degree of autonomy in education need to be enjoy especially in Nigerian universities. Universities need to enjoy full academic, financial and human resources autonomy and freedom that relate to full control all areas of teaching, academic, staffing learning and their welfare and most importantly in the area of research that would help in implementing our entire national development plan.

Therefore, it is noteworthy that in a policy document for education at the upper level of education in Nigeria, the terms institution autonomy and academic freedom cannot be loosely divorced from each other. As Nigeria returns to full democratic system of governance, it is expected that all the dividends will be collectively enjoyed. The 1999 constitution as amended in her chapter two section (18) (1) of the blueprint highlighted government efforts on education at all levels as follow;

• Government shall promote science and technology
• Government shall strive to eradicate illiteracy to this end government shall as when practicable provide;
• Free, compulsory and universal basic education
• Free university education
• Free adult literacy program³

The federal government in her constitutional blueprint committed herself to institutional autonomy and academic freedom which was highly spelt out in National Policy on Education 2013 reversed edition, highlighted specific functions of government towards achieving higher education goals. The National Policy on Education (NPE) further stated that education is an important tool for developing the full capacities and potentials of human resources and an investment for economic, social and political development^4. Nigeria approach to education is rooted in the view that higher education can be considered as the best option to every type of development that will be achievable

The National Policy on Education (2013) stated as follow;

• Education is an  instrument for national development and social change
• Education is vital for the promotion of a progressive and united Nigeria
• Education maximizes the creative potentials and skills of the individual for self fulfillment and general development of the society
• Education is compulsory and a right of every Nigerian irrespective of gender, social status, religion, colour, ethnic background and any peculiar and individual challenges
• Education is to be qualitative, comprehensive, functional and relevant to the needs of society⁵

From the above provisions, Nigeria cannot achieve these goals and some other objectives of higher education without being granted full autonomy and freedom for free academic and financial freedom.

Institutional autonomy is necessary because it would help to create situations in which the managers of universities are answerable to the constituent’s parts of system (the academic community). Granting autonomy and freedom to especially Nigerian universities would help to strengthening democratic processes within educational institutions and ensuring that each university gives free rein to the creativity of its staff and students

It is based on the above that Ross defined autonomy as the freedom of the institution to function without undue control or influence by external forces or agencies⁶. In view of this analysis, it is important to note that Nigerian government over the years has initiated some new policies for universities autonomy. These policies provide for the freedom of universities over themselves, appoint their key officers, determine the condition of services of the staff, control their student admission and academic curricula, control their finance and generally regulate themselves as independent legal entities without undue interference from any political agent. 

In more sense, Erguder pointed out that academic freedom is the personal privileged of an academic staff of universities, while university autonomy is an institutional privilege⁷. This implies that lecturers are enjoy academic freedom in relation to institutional autonomy.

Owing to our foregoing analysis of autonomy and academic freedom, the following are the basic components or statement of institutional autonomy and academic freedom of universities.

• Respective universities must exercise legal right of ownership of university assets including land, building, plants and all the infrastructural facilities of the institution
• Freedom to set out expected goals or plan and also provide means of pursuing them independently
• The right to budget running of the university and freedom to run salary structures that would motivate the entire staff of the institution
• Freedom to design academic programs, right to recruit and sack any academic and non academic staff without further interference from both inside and outside the institution
• The right to review tuition fees and other related levies for students to pay
• The right to determine and run suitable academic calendar
• The right to select/appoint Head of Departments and others
• The right to determine admission policy
• The right to conduct examination and degree awarding institution
• The right to enjoy full financial autonomy including the right to run institution bank account, operating internal auditing and right to generate income
• The right to enjoy absolute administrative autonomy without undue constraints from government, political actors and beurocratic interference

International Legal Concept of Institutional Autonomy

Beside our introductory sentence, there are multiples interconnection and internationally recognizes human rights together to constitute an international legal framework supporting academic freedom. Academic freedom encompasses a wide range of human rights. In both developed and developing nations, their constitutional laws emphasize on freedom of opinion, expression, association and assembly. It is based on the above that the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) as noted, emphasizes on University autonomy as a prerequisite for the exercise of professors and student, individual rights⁸. This implies that academic freedom extends not only to members of the academic community, but also to educational institutions with particular reference to universities. These rights are enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as well as in other international treaties, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)⁹

Apart from the above mentioned rights, is the freedom of thought and opinion, expression, privacy among other rights. The freedom of opinion or thought is among the most significance right to safeguards academic freedom, protecting the process of intellectual curiosity, reflection and exploration. Article (19) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) guarantees the freedom of opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impact information and ideas through any media regardless and frontiers¹⁰.

Similarly, on the above rights, right to freedom of association and freedom of assembly. Article 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) provides for the right of freedom of association and freedom of assembly¹¹. These provide for the association of student union and clubs, teachers union and right to organise and participate in campus activities.

The right to education, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) guarantees the right to education (Article 13) and the right to scientific progress and its applications (article 15). These rights speak to the essence of academic freedom and impose on states a positive obligation to guarantees these rights. A recent report by the special Reporter on the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression suggests that states have a positive obligation to implement institutional protections, promote autonomy and create an environment conducive for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas.

Also, the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights referred to as the Bajul Charter is an African-based position outlining the rights and obligations of nations in Africa entirely. A total of 54 nations with Nigerian inclusive are to enjoy these rights. Article 9 of the African Charter guarantee the freedom of information, expression and opinion emphasized as follow;

• Every individual shall have right to receive information
• Every individual shall have the rights to express and disseminates his opinion within the law^12.

The African Charter by the efforts of civil society culminate in the adoption of the Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility, 1990, as well as the current Juba Declaration on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy, 2007^13. Beside, all the international legal backups including that of African nations all point at academic freedom and institutions autonomy in the following areas, academic, financial and human resource autonomy among others. These aspects of institutional freedom have been questionable especially in third world nations of higher education system. The focus of this assessment is to assess the application of these rights spelt out internationally with reference to Nigerian education.

Federal Government statement on Academic Freedom and Institutional Autonomy. 

In Nigerian constitutional law, which was amended in 1999, what has now become known as the essential freedom of academic institutions of higher education was fairly spelt out, although academic freedom in Nigeria is indirectly provides for at the level by an expansive jurisprudential interpretation of the Nigerian constitution’s provision on freedom of expression and through Nigeria obligations as signatories to the regional and international instruments.

Nigerian is also a signatory to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), Intentional Covenant on Civil and Political rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural rights (ICESCR). Apart from the above, as the giant of African nations, Nigeria is among the frontier of the African Charter who collectively guarantees academic freedom to be effective.

Although, Nigeria as a nation since 1960 of political independence has witnessed a lot of political instability, threatening academic freedom until the result of Ashby Commission recommended greatly on expansion of education to all irrespective of geographical location. The expansion of higher education was made a priority in the national development plan and federal government gave power to National University Commission (NUC) In 1962¹³. At the point of NUC pronouncement and because of political instabilities that has rocked the nation including her educational system, several decrees were propounded but with less adequate implementation in favour of the few universities available. Until 1974, Decree No. 1, spelt the power given to NUC to plan and execute its vision of a centrally coordinated tertiary system¹⁵.

Assessment of federal government efforts on Institutional Autonomy and Academic Freedom

In fact, under military government in Nigeria, the concept of university autonomy was just on paper without practical meaning to the running of universities. The nation seemed to have lost her glory, enthroned mediocrity, to have not only banished excellence but also re-predicted knowledge and experience even in the act of governance.

Okigbo stated that the nation desecrated the temple of universities and turned them from intellectual citadels to a purely political market place. He further stated that the nation’s academic has sunk to depths from which it seems difficult to rescue¹⁶.  The Nigerian academic has exposed her models and percepts as only skin deep and demonstrated that some professors in government could be competent but majority of them are political street liars contributing negatively to academic freedom of universities. This is because they have lost their independence, self esteem and intellectual integrity to the dictates of their leaders unaware of the generality of the nation.

Academic freedom and university autonomy did not land on a soft ground during the military government but the general focus, autonomy of university is a framework of self governing of all her stated missions. As Nigerian returns to purely democratic system of governance, university autonomy bill was signed into law by President Olusegu Obasanjo on July 10^th 2002. With his signing, it became an Act. One of the things is that, governing council of a university shall be free in the discharge of its functions and exercise its responsibilities for good management, growth and development of the university¹⁷.  Again there shall be no sole administrator in any Nigerian university.

Therefore, from the above terms, autonomy of university is a framework of action in which the university is at liberty to

1. Select and appoint its teaching staff and administrators and to determine their conditions of service
2. Appoint, promote and discipline their staff
3. Teach and select areas of research
4. Determine and decide the allocation of available financial resources among compting demands.
5. Decide the criteria for admission of students

In view of the above, the federal government re-committed herself that government shall continue to respect this freedom of universities which in section five (5) of the Nigerian educational policy gave maximum support to the idea that higher education across the states should enjoy being free from political and any governmental interference. This calls for critical assessment of the provision stated clearly in the National Policy on Education. The questions are, when will Nigerian universities will be granted full autonomy as stated in the nation constitution and re-emphasized in her educational blueprint? What are the basic features strengthening institutional autonomy in the current democratic system of governance in Nigeria? The points itemised above are the comprehensive and pragmatic set of criteria for defining university autonomy when we consider them under the following sub-headings

1. Academic autonomy/academic freedom. Academic freedom is the absolute rights of institutions, absolute right to effective management, absolute freedom of Faculties and Departments. All these Faculties and Departments are strong agencies that help the administrative process of higher education institutions.  They assist in the areas of appointments and promotion of staff, they are relevant in determining course contents, selecting related instructional facilities, select and conduct researches, set and conduct institutional examinations. Teachers/lecturers autonomy must also be granted as they are directly involves in all academic processes, therefore, they are entitled to enjoy good salary and allowances, freedom to assess students performances and also freedom to past/ repeat based on merits without any interference by the institutional management and others, freedom to enjoy being sponsors among other rights. Therefore, based on the above, the problem is not that of provision, but implementation of what is contained in the blueprint into action are the major problems of Nigerian government. There is too much interference on academic issues. For instance.

• Administration autonomy. This is another area that needs to be free from undue constraints. The first problem of Nigerian universities is institutional governance system. Both public and private universities in Nigeria, the council, for instance in public universities, a collegial body elected by the visitor, congregation, senate and convocation are the highest authority in the institutions. In private universities, the proprietors appoints the external members of the councils. However, the general administration is under the control of the Vice-Chancellor. But the process of election of the Vice-Chancellor is subject to approval of the visitors (president and state governors). For instance in 1972, General Gowon appointed Vice Chancellor for the university of Lagos without reference to Governing council of the university. The type of appointment also featured under the leadership of General Murtala regime in 1975 where he appointed a Vice Chancellor to University of Maiduguri. There are lots of similar interventions on Nigerian universities even as the nation returns to democratic system of government.

For instance, some major issues on academic freedom as of period to which Nigeria returns to democratic system governance is that of 53 academic staff who were unilaterally dismissed at the University of Ilorin in 1999. Similarly five professors at the Lagos state university who opposed the process the government adopted for the appointment of the Vice Chancellor contrary with provision of the law were dismissed by the state governor. In fact, academic staff union of universities has been banned and unbanned on several points in the era of democratic system of governance. 120 academic staff of Kogi state university were also dismissed by the order of the governor. Federal Government through the minister of labour and productivity registered a sub-union (CONUA) to frustrate and reduce the strength of ASUU. In fact from 1999 to date academic freedom of Nigerian universities in several points offers to be in the hands of any successive government, which most of them are unaware of the role her university education.

• Financial autonomy- The economic crisis resulting to financial problems over the years led to reduced public funding support to education. As the nation is being governed by democratically elected people, it is believed that, the current effort would help to resolve the imbalances inherited from the military system of the past. This explains how tertiary institutions under the principles of Decrees contributed to the falling standards of education in the country. Consequently, what we experienced in the past find their huge ground in the present system of democratic governance. In most Nigerian universities there is progressive decline in tertiary institution in funding.  The consequences are reflected in the environment of the system, poor infrastructural and physical facilities, poor quality of laboratory equipments, poor library, congested lecture halls, large population of students with few classes and accommodation, teachers are poorly motivated, teacher-student ratio among others, there is no enough offices for lecturers in most Nigerian universities among other. Therefore, the situation calls for industrial actions by various unions (ASUU), struggles for the rights of her members and revitalisation of universities to some extent. In most cases, between ASUU and the federal government on matters involving her members and the entire university community, government use their power against the union for reasons best known to them. The challenges of Nigerian universities is financial autonomy, it is the fuel engine of every administrative process therefore our universities need to enjoy such benefits.

Challenges to Institutional Autonomy and Academic Freedom    

Challenges to academic freedom of universities vary by context of the nation’s political system on matters concerning university education. In Nigeria, during the post colonial context, attention shifted to the nature of political and economic problems will not only pressures on the education system as a whole but also contributes to a generally violent climate in which  people do not necessarily feel free to pursuing their academic interest.

In view of the above, there are many types of erosion on institutional autonomy and academic freedom being practiced in Nigeria. Pursuant to human rights norms, academic freedom involves an institutional element of protection; government must facilitate and protect the autonomy and self governance of educational institutions in order to create an enabling environment for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas.

For instance, the Juba Declaration of 2007 specifically demands that governments avoid interfering with the autonomy of higher education institution¹⁸ However, with the nature of democratic principles, over many years of Nigerian political freedom from colonial system, education system entirely are controlled by the government. This type of influence is not only contrary to human rights norms but lack of institutional autonomy and academic freedom has demonstrated negative impact on the attitudes and moral of academic staff and students.

Owing to our analysis of institutional autonomy and academic freedom, below are the highlight of challenges encountered in Nigeria universities.

1. Government control over affairs of universities through her existing agencies regulatory bodies hold much of the power to make decisions as to the basis which students are admitted, curriculum design and teaching qualifications
2. Underfunding of higher education programs
3. Acute infrastructural decay and absent in most lecture theatres
4. Lack of functional laboratory equipment for practical and completely absent in some centers
5. Higher number of admitted students without cognizance of the existing facilities
6. The introduction of single treasuring policy in most university system has affected academic activities in most Faculties and Departments which they find it difficult to executes most programmes of their departments
7. Lecturers are poorly motivated
8. Lecturers are being in offices and so on.

Conclusion.

Academic freedom and institutional autonomy is paramount to the educational sector. This is enshrined in the 1999 constitution amended and the National Policy on Education, giving the power to establishing most of institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. Higher education institutions by our understanding even at the present system of governance in the country are tied on the apron of the government who control and give order. The interpretation of the position of the national constitution amended in line with global legal concept on institutional autonomy and academic freedom was narrowly explained due to polity in power. Therefore, the struggles to rebuild institutional autonomy and academic freedom as a mean of re-engineering institutions of higher teaching and learning especially universities are a mere demand for monastic separation from entire societies. It is a right step to impart bodies of knowledge in materially tolerable conditions without being frustrated by any political influences. It also helps to protect allocations to Universities from being diverted by politics and power plays which is the sure way of implementing the autonomy.

The way forward 

Federal Government should grant full and uninterrupted autonomy to higher education institutions in the basic areas that is, academic, administrative and financial autonomy for quality delivery.

1. Higher institution should be given the authority to generate fund internally in addition to the grants given by the government and the power to disburse the funds.
2. The issue of single treasuring account system introduced by some universities should be urgently revised for free and fair academic activities of Faculties and Departments 
3. Universities should be given powers to determine remuneration packages are review terms and conditions of service of service staff by themselves
4. It is also suggested that the governing council be given the power to appoint or remove vice-chancellors without any interference of influence by the government
5. Government should re-visit the current nature of funding universities education in the country.

End Notes

1. Jonathan R. A. 21^st Century Challenges to Institutional Autonomy and the Public Good. An America Perspective. 2011. P. 170
2. Ibib. P. 172
3. Marcello S & Silvia M. Academic Freedom and Institutional Autonomy’ Examples and Challenges. 2012. P. 183
4. Ibib. P. 185
5. Federal Republic of Nigeria. National Policy on Education. NRDC press. 2013. P. 70
6. Ibib. P. 72
7. Arikewuyo M O. Challenges of Academic Freedom in the Nigerian University System. Makerere Journal of Higher Education. 2012. P. 249
8. Ibib. P. 253
9. Goolam M. Higher Education in Africa Facing the Challenges in the 21^st Century. International Journal of Higher Education. No. 63. 2011. P. 20
10. Ibib. P. 21
11. Akinwumi F S & Olanyan D. A. Analysis of University Autonomy in Nigeria. Journal of Educational Management. P. 120
12. Ibib. P. 121
13. Ibib. P. 122
14. UNESCO. United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. International Implementation Scheme. 2005-2012. P. 99
15. Gbari U S. Philosophical Evaluation of Education Reform in Nigeria. Ph. D. thesis. 2014. P. 144
16. Ibid. 145
17. Arikewuyo M O. Challenges of Academic Freedom in the Nigerian University System. Makerere Journal of Higher Education. 2012. P. 249
18. Ibid. p. 256

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This study explored the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. Descriptive survey design was adopted and Data were collected from institutional administrators in three public Universities in Akwa Ibom State. A sample of 240 respondents was drawn from a population of 3,100 administrators in the study area through purposive sampling approach to participate in the study. A 15-item validated questionnaire titled: Utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for Quality Service Delivery Survey (UICTQSDS) was employed for data collection. The instrument was tested for reliability using Cronbach Alpha and obtained a statistical index of .89 which was adjudged good enough for data collection. The data collected from the respondents was analyzed through the statistical technique of means and standard deviation. Findings indicated that the extent of utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in terms of students’ administration, research and collaboration, communication and engagement was not satisfactory.  It was concluded that the limited adoption of advanced communication tools and challenges related to inconsistent internet access highlight areas that require attention to enhance ICT integration in the university settings. It is therefore recommended among others public universities in Akwa Ibom State should invest in improving ICT infrastructure, including reliable internet connectivity, to ensure consistent access to online resources and communication platforms for students and staff for quality service delivery in the institutions.

Keywords: ICT, Administration, Quality service, University, Students, Staff

Introduction

The lack of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure in some tertiary institutions have significantly hampered the quality of education (Abiebi & Udume, 2023; Effiong, Akpan, 2017; Ekong & Etuk, 2015). Others have also found that without access to modern technologies, students are unable to effectively engage with digital learning materials and resources, limiting their exposure to up-to-date information and innovative learning methods (Effiong & Akpan, 2017). Additionally, the absence of ICT tools hinders effective communication between students and teachers, leading to a lack of timely feedback and interaction (Agwa-Ejon, Asuquo & Asuquo, 2018). Furthermore, Amondong and Udosen (2020) found that the absence of ICT integration in administrative processes such as registration and record-keeping has resulted in inefficiencies and delays, negatively impacting the overall educational experience in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Therefore, there is a need to explore the influence of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on the quality service delivery of Nigerian Universities generally and Akwa Ibom State in particular.

Quality service delivery refers to the consistent and efficient provision of services that meet or exceed the expectations and needs of customers or stakeholders (Udoudoh & Etitan, 2019). It encompasses aspects such as reliability, responsiveness, accuracy, professionalism, effectiveness, and customer satisfaction, aiming to deliver services that are timely, relevant, accessible, and of high standards (Udosen & Asuquo, 2014). Similarly, the teaching staff of the University are expected to engage in university services such as teaching, research and community service. Unfortunately, the researchers have observed that most academic staff in the University of Uyo seem to epitomize a deplorable standard of service delivery, exhibiting a breathtakingly profound level of incompetence and apathy towards their responsibilities. Their ability to consistently disappoint and frustrate students and stakeholders is nothing short of astonishing, as they seem to excel in their unwavering commitment to providing substandard and lackadaisical service at every turn (Ekong & Etuk, 2015). It appears that some staff in the University of Uyo have perfected the art of incompetence, leaving students and stakeholders to navigate a labyrinth of bureaucratic inefficiencies and unhelpful encounters that would make even the most patient individuals question their sanity. The researchers have equally observed that most academic staff in the study area seem to be unfamiliar with the utilization of Information and Communication Technology for quality services in terms of students’ administration, research and collaboration, communication and engagements.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the use of digital technologies, including computers, software, networks, and communication devices, to manage and process information, facilitate communication, and enable the storage, retrieval, and exchange of data (Abiebi & Udume, 2023). ICT encompasses a wide range of technologies and applications, such as computers, the internet, mobile devices, software programs, databases, and telecommunications systems, which play a crucial role in enhancing efficiency, productivity, and connectivity in various sectors and industries. The utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) enables organizations to leverage digital tools, systems, and communication channels to enhance service delivery, streamline processes, improve accessibility, and provide personalized and efficient services to customers or stakeholders.

Contrarily, it has been observed that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has not been utilized in students’ administration in public universities in Akwa Ibom State to improve efficiency, promote transparency, and enhance communication between students and administrative staff for effective service delivery. It has equally been found that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has not been adequately been utilized in research and collaboration in public universities in Akwa Ibom State to enhance knowledge sharing, facilitate interdisciplinary collaboration, and broaden access to research resources for improved research outcome and quality service delivery in the institutions (Agwa-Ejon, Asuquo & Asuquo, 2018). Studies have shown that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has not been sufficiently utilized in communication and engagement in the study area to foster effective communication channels, facilitate timely dissemination of information, and engage stakeholders through online platforms, promoting transparency, participation, and quality service delivery (Effiong, Akpan, 2017; Ekong & Etuk, 2015). Therefore, the absence of ICT integration in administrative processes such as registration and record-keeping create inefficiencies and delays, hence, negatively impacting the overall educational experience in higher institutions in Uyo.    

Empirical Literature Review

Studies have been carried out on how the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in universities enhances contributes to quality service delivery in terms of streamlining administrative processes, enabling efficient communication between staff and student. ICT provides access to digital resources and online learning platforms that enhance teaching and research capabilities (Akalu, 2017). Additionally, ICT facilitates the automation of routine tasks, improves data management and analysis, and supports collaborative work, ultimately leading to more effective and responsive services for students and stakeholders.

ICT utilization has become prevalent in university students’ administration globally to enhance service delivery. Much research has focused on how ICT is being adopted and its impact. Akalu (2017) conducted a study in five public universities in Ethiopia to evaluate the extent of ICT utilization in students’ administration. The study employed both questionnaires and interviews with registrars and ICT staff. The findings showed that basic ICT tools like email and computers were widely used. However, uptake of more advanced technologies for online services was still limited. Only one university had partly computerized admission, registration and results management while the others were still mainly manual.

A similar study by Adebisi (2018) in three private universities in Nigeria showed higher ICT adoption levels compared to public institutions. All the universities had fully computerized admissions, registration, fee payments and result processing. Students could access these services online through university portals and mobile apps. Over 90% of students reported that ICT improved timeliness, convenience and transparency of services. However, inconsistent internet access on campus was still a challenge affecting utilization. Both of these empirical studies show that while ICT is being embraced in students’ administration, there are still gaps in comprehensive computerization and digital services especially in public universities. The impact of ICT on quality of student support services has attracted research interest. Adaba (2019) carried out a survey involving 300 students and 30 administrators from two public universities in Ghana. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect data on the level of ICT infrastructure, available online services and perceptions of users. Results showed that basic ICT facilities like computers, Wi-Fi and websites existed but innovative digital services were limited. Most administrative workflows like registration, exams and results were still manual. However, majority of students (85%) felt that ICT enhanced efficiency when used. Administrators cited budget constraints as hampering progress. 

In Kenya, Kioni (2020) employed a mixed methods approach in a case study of one public and one private university. Document reviews, surveys and interviews were conducted. Both institutions had invested heavily in ICT infrastructure over the past 5 years. A wide array of online student services from application to graduation had been rolled out. Over 90% of students reported satisfaction with convenience, transparency and timeliness achieved through ICT. Administrators associated this with improved quality of student support. However, digital skills gap among some older staff was a challenge reported. This study provides empirical evidence on positive impacts of advanced ICT utilization on quality of students’ administration.

Oredein (2010) conducted a comparative study between two Nigerian universities to analyze the level of ICT implementation for students’ administration. Using questionnaires administered to 200 students and interviews with administrative staff, they found that while both universities had basic ICT infrastructure, one led in various online services compared to the other. The leading university had computerized admissions, online registration, e-payment systems and automated results distribution. Over 90% of students were satisfied with reduced processing time and administrative efficiency. However, the other university still relied majorly on manual processes. This showed that even within the same country, ICT adoption levels could vary significantly between institutions.  In another study, Ayebazibwe (2015) surveyed 500 students across 5 public universities in Uganda about their experience with ICT-enabled services for administration functions. It was revealed that admission and registration had been digitized to some extent at all universities. However, few had sophisticated online portals or mobile apps for fee payments, access to academic records and general inquiries. Internet connectivity was poor as well. While over 70% of students appreciated the initial ICT changes, most felt more innovations were still needed for improved service quality. This implies the level of ICT integration was still developing in the Ugandan university context.

Amunga (2019) conducted a positivist case study at a large public university in Kenya to assess the level of ICT adoption, available online services and administration effectiveness from the perspectives of 500 students, 150 academic staff and 50 support staff. Results from questionnaires and interviews showed advanced ICT infrastructure including computer laboratories, high-speed Wi-Fi and a comprehensive student portal. Key services such as admission, registration, mobile money fee payments, access to learning materials and admin support were fully available online. Over 95% of stakeholders reported significant improvements in management processes and service delivery standards from the widespread utilization of ICT. In another qualitative study, Okello-Obura (2018) interviewed administrators, faculty and students at four public and private universities in Uganda about their perceptions on the transformative impacts of digitization in student and academic support. Participants acknowledged time, effort and costs had been saved through online and automated workflows. Student satisfaction with accessibility, transparency and convenience of services delivered digitally was also reported to be high. This illustrated how advanced ICT integration had revolutionized university administration functions.

Owuor (2021) conducted a survey of 300 faculty members across five public universities in Kenya to examine the level of ICT adoption in research activities and institutional collaboration. Findings showed most universities had invested in research management systems, online repositories and collaboration tools. Over 80% of respondents reported using the internet, e-resources and databases to support their research work. Tools like email, learning management systems and video conferencing were used regularly to collaborate with both local and international partners. However, only about half utilized advanced technologies like data mining tools, 3D printing and research analytics systems. The study concluded ICT was positively impacting research and collaboration but there was room for more innovative utilization.

Agaba (2020) carried out a quantitative study assessing ICT infrastructure, available online services and usage patterns among 100 faculty across two universities in Uganda – a public and a private one. Results indicated the private university had significantly better ICT facilities, broadband connectivity and digitized research support systems compared to the public counterpart. For instance, it provided online research grants management, research data repositories, scholarly collaboration platforms and scientific databases/journals access. Lecturers reported benefits like improved information sharing, proposal development and networking with peers. However, inconsistent power supply hindered ICT reliance at the public university. This implied utilization levels varied between institutions based on available resources.

Ochieng and Gatuwa (2020) conducted a mixed methods study evaluating the level of ICT adoption in research administration processes across five public universities in Kenya. Through surveys, interviews and document reviews they found basic infrastructure was available in all universities. Over 80% of researchers used tools like email, internet and MS office Suite. However, uptake of advanced technologies was limited – only one university had a fully computerized research management system, paperless proposal submission and a digital research repository. Researchers cited budget constraints and lack of proper training as hindrances. The study concludes ICT adoption needed improvement for effective research support. A Case study by Birabwa (2018) of Makerere University, Uganda assessed the utilization of four collaborative ICT tools – cloud drives, online conferencing, research blogs and social media networks. Interviews with 30 faculty established these tools enhanced inter-departmental and global collaboration through timely file sharing, joint supervision of students abroad, networking and knowledge exchange. Over 70% reported being more productive researchers. However, unreliable internet and lack of technical skills still hampered comprehensive use of available platforms. The study provides empirical evidence on benefits of strategic ICT adoption in academic collaborations within a resource-constrained setting.

Juma and Ali (2020) conducted interviews with 50 researchers and review of usage records at two public universities in Tanzania to evaluate the uptake of ICT platforms and tools in research dissemination and networking. They found most researchers regularly used email, online repositories and conferences management systems to share publications and publicize events. However, uptake of social media networks, blogging, podcasts and citation analytics was below 20% due to lack of awareness and skills. Both universities had accessed limited research datasets, software and scientific databases. The study concluded that while basic ICT enhanced dissemination, strategic adoption of advanced tools was needed to optimize networking and competitiveness. Omadho (2019) carried out a survey of 200 researchers and review of available ICT resources at a public university in Kenya. They found high-speed internet, e-libraries and statistical analysis software extensively used to access information and support classroom teaching respectively. Over 60% of researchers had published works in online journals/repositories and belonged to professional networks. However, utilization of collaborative authoring platforms, research grant management tools and citation/impact analyses were rated poor. The study associated this with resource and skills limitations but emphasizes the need for targeted capacity building to optimize research collaborations through ICT.

A study by Aluko (2020) examined the level of ICT adoption in communication and engagement activities across three public universities in Nigeria. Through surveys of 200 students and interviews with university staff, they found basic ICT infrastructure like websites, email and WiFi were available. Over 70% of students could not access notices, news and updates online. However, utilization of advanced communication tools was still limited. Only one university had actively used learning management portals, social media platforms and mobile apps for service announcements and feedback. Students cited inconsistent internet access as affecting comprehensive ICT integration. The study concludes more resources and capacity building is required to optimize digital communication. Chiliza and Mutambara (2021) conducted a mixed methods evaluation of ICT utilization in communication functions at the University of East London in the UK. Document reviews, surveys of 150 students and staff and focus group discussions established an elaborate digital communication ecosystem had been established. This included comprehensive learning management portals, interactive websites, social media platforms, podcasts, SMS and mobile apps. Over 90% of respondents acknowledged this could not enhance access to information, creation of virtual learning communities and ability to provide real-time feedback. However, digital skills gap among some older faculty was identified as a challenge, requiring specialized training programs. The study provides evidence of best practices that can be adopted in digital communication.

A study by Otieno and Onyango (2020) examined ICT use for external engagement activities at Maseno University in Kenya. Interviews with university leadership and review of engagement initiatives revealed high reliance on email, social media platforms, websites and e-newsletters to publicize events and solicit collaborations from alumni, partners & sponsors. Over 70% of engagement professionals reported these helped expand outreach and led to increased turnouts for activities. However, use of more advanced technologies like interactive portals and mobile apps was still emerging. The study recommends targeted efforts to optimize digital tools. Manda and Lihat (2019) evaluated ICT adoption among 5 universities in Tanzania through analysis of institutional websites and online platforms. They established most universities had invested in user-friendly websites providing comprehensive information on programs, research, news and faculty. Over 60% also utilized social networking actively for publicity and recruitment. However, adoption of interactive features like live chat, video conferencing and mobile apps was limited. The study associates this with lack of clear strategies and budget barriers to advanced digital engagement.

Agaba (2021) examined ICT utilization for internal communication functions across two public universities in through surveys of 300 staff members. Findings showed high reliance on emails, bulletin boards, memos and websites to disseminate staff notifications and circulars. However, use of platforms like intranets, online communities, and cloud collaboration tools among departments was below 30% due to inadequate infrastructure and capacity challenges. The study emphasizes the need for strategic ICT integration for efficient information dissemination within institutions. A comparative case study of two universities in Kenya by Langat and Chepkoech (2018) explored digital tools used in student support communication. Document reviews and interviews revealed one university had invested heavily in portals, SMS, social media, apps and live chats to provide advising, feedback and complaint services digitally. Over 90% of students were satisfied with personalized, convenient and transparent services attained. But the other university still used traditional in-person methods more. This showed how strategic ICT adoption impacted engagement and service satisfaction.

Summarily, while the literature reviews provided insights into the levels of ICT utilization across different universities and regions, they mostly focused on a small number of case studies and did not examine trends broadly across diverse institutional contexts on a larger scale. The reviews also tended to provide a snapshot of ICT adoption at a single point in time rather than explore evolution of utilization longitudinally over multiple years. Lastly, the studies generally had a narrow focus on specific domains like student administration, research or communication, without holistically evaluating ICT integration across all aspects of university operations and its multifaceted impacts. These are the gaps this present study stands to fill in literature by examining the extent of utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria.

Statement of the Problem

Public universities in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria face challenges in utilizing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) effectively for quality service delivery. The problem stems from inadequate infrastructure, limited ICT skills among staff and faculty, insufficient ICT policies and strategies, lack of funding for ICT projects, inadequate technical support and maintenance, limited access to ICT resources and training opportunities, and the absence of a comprehensive framework for integrating ICT into university operations. These factors hinder the optimal utilization of ICT, resulting in inefficient administrative processes, ineffective communication channels, limited access to digital resources and online learning platforms, and a subpar learning environment for students. Consequently, there is a pressing need to address these ICT-related challenges to enhance quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State and ensure that students and stakeholders can benefit fully from the potential of ICT in education.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to examine the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to find out the extent to which ICT is utilized in:

1.         Students’ administration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa           Ibom    State

2.         Research and collaboration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa        Ibom State

3.         Communication and engagements for quality service delivery in public Universities in       Akwa Ibom State

Research Questions  

The following questions were raised and answered in the study

1.         To what extent is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in    students’ administration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa    Ibom State?

2.         How is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in research and           collaboration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State?

3.         To what extent is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in    communication and engagement for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa        Ibom State?

Methodology

Descriptive survey design and quantitative approach were adopted in conducting the study.  Data were collected from institutional administrators in three public Universities in Akwa Ibom State: University of Uyo (UNIUYO), Federal University of Technology, Ikot Abasi and Akwa Ibom State University, Ikot Akpaden, Akwa Ibom State. The population comprised 3,100 administrators in all the public Universities in the study area. The purposive sampling approach was adopted in drawing a sample of 240 respondents to participate in the study. A 15-item validated questionnaire titled: Utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for Quality Service Delivery Survey (UICTQSDS) was employed for data collection. The instrument was tested for reliability using Cronbach Alpha and obtained a statistical index of .89 which was adjudged good enough for data collection. The questionnaire comprised four parts (Section A, B, C and D) based on the objectives of the study. Section A was on demographic data, while other sections focused on the utilization of Information and Communication Technology in for quality service delivery. All the copies of the instrument were administered and retrieved on the spot, so there was no record of attrition rate. They were rated as follows: Strongly Agree (SA) 4 points; Agree (A) 3 points; Disagree (D) =2 and Strongly Disagree (SD) =1 point while the criterion mean score was 2.50. The data collected from the respondents was analyzed through the statistical technique of means and standard deviation.

Research Question One

To what extent is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in students’ administration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State?

Table 1: Mean and standard deviation scores on the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in students’ administration for quality service delivery in Akwa Ibom State

S/N	Items on the extent of ICT utilization in students’ administration	N	X	S.D	Remarks
1	The administrative staff in students’ administration effectively utilize ICT tools and systems for efficient communication and service delivery	240	2.19	1.08	Disagree
2	Student records and administrative processes are well-digitized and easily accessible through ICT platforms	240	2.35	1.15	Disagree
3	The availability of online platforms and resources allows students to conveniently access information and services related to their academic journey	240	2.47	1.22	Disagree
4	The administrative staff promptly and effectively handle student inquiries, requests, and concerns using ICT	240	2.33	1.42	Disagree
5	ICT is effectively utilized to streamline processes such as online registration, course selection, and academic advising for students	240	2.01	1.01	Disagree
	Criterion mean score		2.50

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Table 1 shows that the mean scores for all the items assessing the extent of ICT utilization in students’ administration for quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State are below the criterion mean score of 2.50, indicating disagreement with the statement. This suggests that the respondents perceive that the administrative staff does not effectively utilize ICT tools and systems for efficient communication and service delivery, student records and administrative processes are not well-digitized and easily accessible, online platforms and resources are not readily available for students, the administrative staff does not promptly and effectively handle student inquiries and concerns using ICT, and ICT is not effectively utilized to streamline processes such as online registration, course selection, and academic advising for students. Therefore, the answer to the research question is that the extent of utilizing Information and Communication Technology (ICT) on students’ administration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State is very low.

Research Question Two

How is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in research and collaboration for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State?

Table 2: Mean and standard deviation scores on the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in research and collaboration for quality service delivery in Akwa Ibom State

S/N	Items on the extent of ICT utilization in research and collaboration	N	X	D	Remarks
1	The utilization of ICT tools and platforms significantly enhances research collaboration and knowledge sharing among faculty members in my school	240	1.19	1.28	Disagree
2	ICT resources and databases are effectively utilized to access and retrieve research materials and scholarly publications for academic purposes.	240	2.39	1.15	Disagree
3	Online communication platforms and collaborative tools are widely adopted to facilitate interdisciplinary research projects and collaborations among researchers.	240	1.47	1.12	Disagree
4	The utilization of ICT enables efficient data management and analysis, contributing to high-quality research outcomes and evidence-based decision-making.	240	2.35	1.22	Disagree
5	Public universities effectively leverage ICT platforms to disseminate research findings and engage with the wider academic community, promoting knowledge exchange and quality service delivery.	240	1.03	1.01	Disagree
6	Criterion mean score		2.50

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Table 2 indicates that the mean scores for all the items assessing the extent of ICT utilization in research and collaboration for quality service delivery are below the criterion mean score of 2.50, indicating disagreement with the statements. This suggests that the respondents perceive that ICT tools and platforms do not significantly enhance research collaboration and knowledge sharing among faculty members, ICT resources and databases are not effectively utilized to access research materials and scholarly publications, online communication platforms and collaborative tools are not widely adopted for interdisciplinary research projects, the utilization of ICT does not enable efficient data management and analysis, and public universities do not effectively leverage ICT platforms to disseminate research findings and engage with the academic community. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the current level of ICT utilization in research and collaboration for quality service delivery in the given context is deemed unsatisfactory.

Research question three

To what extent is Information and Communication Technology (ICT) utilized in communication and engagement for quality service delivery in public Universities in Akwa Ibom State?

Table 3: Mean and standard deviation scores on the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in communication and engagement for quality service delivery in Akwa Ibom State

S/N	Items on the extent of ICT utilization in communication and engagement	N	X	D	Remarks
1	The utilization of ICT platforms enables effective communication channels between students, faculty, and administrative staff, enhancing engagement and promoting quality service delivery.	240	2.19	1.20	Disagree
2	The utilization of ICT platforms enables effective communication channels between students, faculty, and administrative staff, enhancing engagement and promoting quality service delivery.	240	2.04	1.11	Disagree
3	ICT-based feedback systems and surveys are implemented to gather student feedback and opinions, fostering a culture of continuous improvement in service delivery.	240	2.17	1.13	Disagree
4	Public universities leverage ICT to establish interactive online communities and forums for students to engage in academic discussions and peer collaboration.	240	2.25	1.25	Disagree
5	The utilization of ICT facilitates prompt and responsive communication between students and administrative staff, ensuring efficient resolution of inquiries, concerns, and requests for improved service delivery.	240	2.19	1.07	Disagree
6	Criterion mean score		2.50		Agree

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Table 3 demonstrates that the mean scores for all items were below the criterion mean, indicating that respondents disagreed on the extent to which ICT is utilized for communication and engagement in the universities. This suggests that ICT is not extensively utilized according to the respondents. Specifically, the results show that ICT is inadequately utilized for communication between stakeholders, disseminating information to students, gathering feedback, and facilitating student engagement and service delivery. Therefore, to answer the research question – the statistical analysis reveals that ICT is not significantly utilized for communication and engagement to support quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State.

Discussion of findings

Based on the descriptive analyses, the first, second, and third research questions revealed that the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State was inadequate. This suggests that the use of ICT in various aspects, such as student administration, research and collaboration, communication, and engagement, was not satisfactory in the sampled institutions. The finding suggests that the level of utilization of ICT in students’ administration, research and collaboration, and communication and engagement in the sampled institutions is relatively low, as indicated by the respondents’ disagreement with the statements assessing ICT utilization. This inferred a need for increased efforts and improvements in integrating ICT tools and systems to enhance service delivery, research collaboration, and communication channels in the sampled institutions.

This finding is in agreement with that of Akalu (2017) whose findings showed that basic ICT tools like email and computers were not widely used and the uptake of more advanced technologies for online services was still limited. Only one university had partly computerized admission, registration and results management while the others were still mainly manual. This finding is also in agreement with that of Owuor (2021) whose findings showed most universities had not invested in research management systems, online repositories and collaboration tools. Over 80% of respondents reported not using the internet, e-resources and databases to support their research work. Also, tools like email, learning management systems and video conferencing were not used regularly to collaborate with both local and international partners. However, only about half utilized advanced technologies like data mining tools, 3D printing and research analytics systems. The finding is equally in consonant with that of Aluko (2020) who found that basic ICT infrastructure like websites, email and WiFi were unavailable. Over 70% of students could not access notices, news and updates online. However, utilization of advanced communication tools was still limited. Only one university had actively used learning management portals, social media platforms and mobile apps for service announcements and feedback. It was found that most students cited inconsistent internet access as affecting comprehensive ICT integration.

The implication of this finding is that the limited utilization of advanced communication tools, such as learning management portals, social media platforms, and mobile apps, for service announcements and feedback, the inconsistency of internet access reported by most students highlights a significant barrier to comprehensive ICT integration, which tend to hinder the effective utilization of ICT in various aspects of university operations and service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study reveals a need for substantial improvement in the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for quality service delivery in public universities in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. The limited adoption of advanced communication tools and challenges related to inconsistent internet access highlight areas that require attention to enhance ICT integration and maximize its potential benefits in the university settings.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, here are three concise recommendations:

1. Public universities in Akwa Ibom State should invest in improving ICT infrastructure, including reliable internet connectivity, to ensure consistent access to online resources and communication platforms for students, faculty, and administrative staff.

2. Conduct regular training programmes and workshops to enhance the ICT skills of students, faculty, and administrative staff. This will empower them to effectively utilize advanced communication tools, research collaboration platforms, and administrative systems, thereby improving students’ administration, research, and collaboration efforts.

3. Establish clear and comprehensive ICT policies that outline guidelines and best practices for utilizing ICT tools and platforms across all areas of university operations. These policies should address issues such as data privacy, online engagement, and effective use of learning management systems, ensuring a consistent and cohesive approach to ICT utilization for quality service delivery.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The discourse focuses on importance of creating robust leadership approaches to manage human and academic segments in Nigerian tertiary institutions with the aim of making education business at tertiary institutions competitive, autonomous, advancing and productive. The authors emphasize administration of tertiary institutions as social rudiment of growth that needs not be too strict and not flexible if the institutions must achieve growth and relevance in society. Drawing on sociological perspectives, the discourse elucidates various types of school leadership styles that can make tertiary institutions functional in 21^st Century and be ready to become autonomous; free from undue influences and regulations that can undermine institutional attainments. In addition to this, the authors explain the various attributes of an effective tertiary institution leader, laying emphasis on those that can make institutions of higher learningbecome productively competitive in Nigerian society. The discourse concludes that to create competitive and advancing systems of tertiary institution, the leadership must be transformational and not transactional. Administrators of tertiary institutions must be motivators and mentors. Beyond these, the entire school system must be operated to become competitive and not to remain stagnant and overtly traditional.

Introduction

Innovations and advancements in human societies have brought more challenges for education sector, particularly the tertiary education sector. Part of the challenges most tertiary institutions face now is the need to advance, become autonomous, functional and resourceful to be able to deliver in accordance to the ever-dynamic needs of people and societies in this 21^st century. Tertiary institutions have always expressed desires to be autonomous. They have always wanted to have little or no external influence on designs of their course contents, teaching methodologies, appointments, renumerations, certifications and community services (Faruq & Muhammed, 2021). The belief is that a tertiary institution can only deliver standard education if it is free from illogical social variables that do emanate from religious, cultural, economic and political interests in the larger society (Abubakar &Junaidu, 2022; Arikewuyo, 2012). Gone are the days whentertiary institutions wanted to remain traditional and unyielding to societal advancements. Higher institutions of learning now need logical and encompassing self-made templates with which to govern, utilize available resources, manage human characters and deliver for the good of their societies. The need for this keeps growing in this present 21^st century, as schools of all levels are expected to evolve for the betterment of staff, students and society (Gorge & Maxwell, 2022).

Beyond all these craving for autonomy and development, is the need for tertiary institutions to evolve and operate on functional leadership approaches. No doubt, institutional leadership style is one of the core prongs upon which a school can develop and become impactful (Ayorinde, 2022). A functional leadership is leadership that functions and not retarded or overtly unfree from undue external social-cultural policies and practices. Functional leadership is onethat comprises structured policies and personnel that are effective, advancing and useable. It must be a leadership that can develop school and make it compete favorably as indispensable sector of the society. The school leadership must manifest relational styles among its units so as to be able to maximize productivity and ensure accountability to itself and to the society that establishes it.  As opined by Harallambo and Heald (2020), leadership is the most important determinant of organizational effectiveness in school. This is because without adequate and positive leadership practices, it is very unlikely that the available human and non-humanresources can be put to judicious use. This position informed structuring of Nigerian system of education into manageable layers for proper coordination and results.

Structure of Educational Administration in Nigeria

Administration of Nigerian system of Education is structured to cover the four levels of Education in the country. Thus, we have different administrative policies and personnel for each of the levels, namely:

1) Early Childhood Education

2) Basic Education comprising primary and Junior Secondary Education

3) Senior Secondary Education

4) Tertiary Education 

While the first level of education is still not clearly defined in the Nigerian National Policy of Education (NPE), other levels are; and are structured for administrative conveniences as may be related to the peculiarities of each concerned level. More specifically, the second level of education is compulsory, universal and free in Nigeria (NPE, 2000). Generally, though, the administrations of the four levels of education are segmented under private personnel – as in privately owned schools- or under public personnel as in government owned schools. This does not remove the power of central-control of education from the Federal Government. Either private or public, the government of the federation has executive power to coordinate education in the country. In line with the needs of the entire society; private schools are compelled to adjust to government’s control through enactments of educational policies and administrative personnel.

The principles and practices relating to administration of education in Nigeria are enacted and coordinated through the activities of the Legislative and Executive arms of government. The Judiciary arm only functions in the capacity of interpreting polices and/or mediating within the stakeholders of education, particularly in time of crisis. The functions of the three arms of government and other stakeholders are in accordance with the general philosophy of Nigeria system of education and the stipulations in the official document called the Legislative Lists. There are three Legislative Lists in Nigerian governance. These are:

1) Executive List: This contains items of duties which only the Federal Government can adjudicate on.

2) Residual Legislative List: This includes item of duties within the exclusive legislative power of the state governments.

3) Concurrent Legislative List: This contains item of duties that both Federal and State governments can legislate and adjudicate on.

No doubt, the power of the Federal government supersedes that of the State government in education designs and control. The Executive arm of government either at states or federal levels carry out its educational responsibilities through bodies, ministries and commissions such as the Civil Service Commission, Ministries of Education, Institutes, and agencies of education. Duties and responsibilities of these segments begin with and manifest into the pattern of leadership style prevalent in tertiary institutions. Giddens, (2001) argued that achievements in schools are the products of the leadership styles that is put to work. This suggests the need for stakeholders in education to understand the various school leadership styles and their dynamics for effective advancement in education sector. 

Rubrics of Leadership Styles in Tertiary Institutions

While administration is all about structure of authorities in an organization, leadershipstyle is the strategy that is employed at each structure of the organization to guide, direct and influence human and non-human resources towards achieving the goals for which the organization is established. A sociological perspective named Functionalism emphasizes the need for all institutional structures (segments) to work effectively and collectively towards attaining the goals of the institution. Functional theorists believe that the leadership and followership segments of an organization, be it educational, economic, political, or social organization, must collaborate to function; otherwise, a situation of laxity in one segment will render the whole of other segments faulty (Giddens, 2000; Daftt, 2005; Ayorinde, 2022). This implies that the leadership segment of a tertiary institution cannot isolate itself from the followership or subordinate segments.

Many authors (Haralambos& Heald, 2018; Roberg, Novak, Cordner& Smith, 2012) have written about leadership styles and have categorized the styles in many ways. Some have talked about autocratic, democratic and charismatic leadership styles.  Others have talked about normative and participatory leadership styles. These categorizations are quite okay. However, in this discourse, leadership styles in tertiary institutions would be categorized into two, namely:

1) Transactional leadership style

2) Transformational leadership style

The above categorization is done on the premise ofsociological perspective that sees leadership as a process; as a means of utilizing the resources for the common goal of the organization. In this perspective, leadership is seen as the activities of the leader rather than the leader himself. It is seen as pattern of interactions among organizational resources. The two categories are explained as follows:

Transactional Leadership style: This is a traditional, bureaucratic leadership style. It is a rigid form of school leadership that accepts the status quo. It is characterized by personnel who hardly initiate new ideology and procedures to replace the old ways of doing things in tertiary institutions system. Bernard Bass, quoted in Luthans, (2005) describes transactional leaders as those who lack collaborative initiatives. Transactional leaders manage by exception, they watch for lapses from their employees or watch for employees’ intent or action to deviate from the rules. This is why transactional leadership is said to be what easily kills initiatives or organizational member’s effort at being creative and advancing (Luthans, 2005; Schein, 2020). With transactional leadership style, academic staffs in universities can not operate with academic freedom and neither can the institution be autonomous. This is because, transactional leadership is nothing but gaged working experience.

Academic freedom is the moral and legal freedoms that grant university lecturers freedom of inquiry and teaching. It is a subset of university autonomy. University believes that maintaining its academic freedom is essential if it must achieve its core academic and human development goals (Abubakar &Junaidu, 2016). Academic freedom allows faculty members to teach or communicate ideas or facts even when such may be repulsive to external religious and political groups. It is believed that universities should be able to do this without fear of repression, job loss or imprisonment or being restricted by law and beliefs.  Unfortunately, transactional leadership style could hinder actualization of academic freedom and the subsequent autonomy of tertiary institutions.

Transactional leadership is not the best for tertiary institutions organization. Generally, schools are avenue for academic and social interactions. Being human, behaviours of school members cannot be constant or static. Thus, to manage the dynamics of the behaviours of members of school organization, there is need for flexibility and creativity. Members of tertiary institutions should be able to think and act without necessarily being rigid. Other leadership styles such as autocratic and normative leadership styles are subsets of the transactional leadership style. Functional perspective of Sociology believes these styles cannot be productive. The employees govern using them cannot be productive. Such styles hardly develop sense of progressive competition among segments of institutions (Eric & Hassan, 2020). Transactional leaders fall short of the improvements that transformational leaders can initiate.

Transformational Leadership style: This leadership style is modern and progressive. It is a leadership approach that utilizes opinions and skills of every organizational member to transform both human and non-human resources in school system. It is a style that can make all segments of tertiary institution effective as they contribute to or are utilized for the purpose of school development. Transformational school leaders are charismatic; they provide their subordinates with vision and sense of mission. Leaders in this category reinforce subordinate’s emotion and commitment to job delivery. Because transformational leaders encourage participatory governance, they tend to awake the goodwill of their subordinates and encourage creativity. Transformational leadership is open for improvement. It is participatory and collaborative (Drake, 2019). It is a school leadership style that recognizes the contributions of individual staff. It encourages staff and tailors their efforts towards school successes. Other leadership styles such as collaborative, participatory, and democratic leadership styles are subset of the transformational leadership style.

Transformational leadership in tertiary institution can promote the idea of autonomy and academic freedom. It is a style that allows innovation and self-governance. With this leadership style, tertiary institutions can grow as members can be given ample opportunities to make inputs into the development of teaching and learning in the system.

Understanding school leadership styles also requires having an insight into the personalities of the leaders who will affect the leadership styles. In the next subsection of this discourse, we will focus on those attributes a school leader can have to become effective in school governance.

Attributes of effective Administrators of Tertiary Institution

Certain attributes depict an effective leader of tertiary institution. Most of the following characteristics should be the inherent traits or personalities of a tertiary leaderbefore he can be adjudged as effective or seen as a leader that would encourage tertiary autonomy and academic freedom. If the characteristics are not in the leader’s personality, manifesting them in his leadership style may be difficult. The characteristics are:

Vision and Mission: Effective leaders of tertiary institutions tend to have vision of what they want their school to be. They tend to envision or foresee a great school where things work and where moral and academic successes are achieved. Practically, they see the success ahead and strive to get there. It is just like the common saying that where there is vision, there is going to be mission.  It is when a tertiary leader has positive vision that he can be propelled to consistently pursue or work towards achieving it for his institution. To a visionary leader, the vision becomes an end of a sort. A school leader without a vision cannot have a guided mission; his approaches to school governance will be disorganized and inconsistent. Articulating such vision can be an added advantage. An articulated vision tends to become a reminder of standards and expectations.

Confidence, Self-Efficacy and Diligence: Having confidence in oneself, believing that one is on the right part and capable of achieving success are good attributes of effective leaders (Roediger, Capaldi, Paris, Polivy& Herman, (1996). A leader of tertiary institution that doubts his vision, or that believes the vision is unachievable cannot lead self nor make others work towards achieving the vision. Self-efficacy has to do with believing in one’s ability to achieve or carry out a specific function. A confident school leader who is also diligent (hardworking) will endure possible failure knowing well that such failure is temporary and can be turned to success with more planning and administrative focus. Certainly, confidence builds trust and dissuades fear in the followers of a leader.

Mentoring and Role Modeling: Effective tertiary leaders lead by example. They ensure their organizational behaviours are open and good enough to be emulated by other school members. Effective school leaders do not work by paper instructions, they work by action. They do not sit in the office giving instructions. They rather stay on the field acting out what others will willingly emulate. Role modeling is all about setting a value, maintaining it or be consistent on acting out the values and inspiring others to emulate.  An effective leader of tertiary institution who appreciates autonomy and academic freedom should be exceptionally agile to inspire others. Without able to do this, the concept of tertiary autonomy will amount to nothing.

Motivator and Arousal of Goodness: Effective leaders of tertiary institution must be vigilant enough to identify good organizational behaviours of his followers and motivate the behaviour to multiply for the good of the school.  A leader that cannot see or sense when his followers contribute positively to the success of the school will find it difficult to motivate repetition of such positive contribution in the follower. This is because a behaviour that is not recognized and reinforced will reach extinction- it will fade out (Roediger, Capaldi, Paris, Polivy& Herman, 1996). Thus, effective school leaders should be able to identify the contributions of each tertiary staff and motivate those that are relevant to the success of the school while at the same time discourage those that work contrary to the success of the school.  

Communicator and Delegator of Mission: Effective school leaders communicate the mission of the school. They logically make every school member (staff and student) become aware of what the school is envisioned to be. Knowing this will guide school members away from actions that are incongruent with the school mission. In addition to this, the leader must be willing to collaborate with other school members towards achieving school effectiveness. He must be willing to annex his skill with those of others. An effective school leader cannot be the one who claims to know all and able to do all. He must be ready to delegate, share responsibilities and trust others’ capabilities. A school head that want to be the janitor, the school bursar, the mail disperser and at the same time the secretary of the institution’s board will end up doing nothing and will scare other school members’ efforts or contributions. 

Factors That Maketertiary Institutions Competitive and Functional

Until recent time, organization and administration of formal education in Nigeria have been traditional and bureaucratic. Unlike in modern business-oriented organizations such as bank and telecommunication outfits, school activities were designed and carried out as social services that are devoid of profit and flexible social engagements and orientations. School members, particularly teachers, were expected to be modest, unassuming, moderately enthusiastic, and not unnecessarily competitive or business minded in their job delivery (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough& Halsey, 2006; Haralambos & Holborn, 2019). They were the diplomats that must absolve and endureall, irrespective of their feelings.

Unlike inthe 21^st Century, school environments in the past were designed subtly just as the services for which they were built to render. Before now, walls of classrooms were devoid of complex architectural designs. They were just four walls occupying an open land at the Conner of the community. Students were enrolled and teachers recruited following rigid procedures that were not profit driven. On daily bases, the students and staff met to operate on hierarchical principles of authority and relationship. School heads gave orders that teachers and students must obey. The teachers may not have input into the rules governing the school neither can students contribute to the rules and curriculum they were subjected to.  Those were the scenarios in traditional school settings.

Presently, however, with the advent of private tertiary institutions organizational cultures are evolving in schools. Schools are getting organized and business like. In some modern private tertiary institutions, the emerging trends are presenting competitive scenarios that could prompt more advancement (Gorge, 2020). The new order of schools is evolving an organizational culture that is shifting from rigid to flexible approaches. Their approaches are becoming more open and competitive in school business.  Social and academic activities among school members, parents and stakeholders are now open to innovations. Many schools are now run like modern business organization (Maxwell, 2021). The structures of school buildings are changing to allow some flexibility. Architectural designs are now incorporated in some to beautify school premises and allow freer academic and social interactions across teachers’ and students’ groups. Some now have standard recreational centers that include swimming pool and mini marts. E-learning now makes the social media aspects of academic activities and students-teachers relationship seems to be less bossy. 

No doubt, a 21^st Century, school should be student and staff-friendly—it should be a sort of home at school. School walls should become more welcoming. The old prison-like fence that characterized traditional school environments should give way to more attractive and lucrative ones.  In many modern schools, staffs may be designated to meet and welcome pupils at school gate, thereby friendly usher them into the school compound. Using of cane for behavioural modification is prohibited and students have free access to interact with their colleagues and teachers via telecommunication devices.  These changes manifest in and moderate school organizational culture. The changes constitute a new way of conducting school business. It makes school competitive and advancing.

The concept of organizational culture is important in the discourse of pattern of work-oriented relationships among members of an organization. Organizational culture is defined as the persistent collective attitude and behaviour of members of an organization towards one another and their job.  Organizational culture is simply organizational members’ total ways of carrying out their duties. It includes the values, norms and beliefs they attach to their work. Organizational culture is related to school sub-culture. The only slight difference between the two concepts is that school organizational culture emphasizes staff behaviour in relation to their work. Whereas, school sub-culture is broader, it encompasses staff and students’ peculiar behaviours. A school that undermines these two or that fail to advance them to be up to date cannot develop in the present century.

Interactive Culturesin Tertiary Institutions

The following two types of organizational culture are identifiable in tertiary institutions.  One of them advances development, autonomy and academic freedom the other retards all these. Reading through them will illustrate the strength and weakness of the two sides.

 1) Passive and defensive Leadership cultures

2) Liberal and constructive Leadership culture

Passive and Defensive School Leadership Culture:

This is typical of traditional school setting where bureaucracy is central and limited social interaction is encouraged among school hierarchy and groups. In a school with this kind of culture, staff members interact with superiors and clients (parents for example) with all sense of consciousness and routine. The interaction is official and strictly formal. The staff may see fault in the school system of operation but keep quiet because making correction is not part of his responsibilities. He may also keep quiet to avoid being in the bad book of the authority. Every staff member keeps to the line of his action, mind his own business.

In a school where passive and defensive school culture evolves, activities are too straight and passive.  There, everybody has learnt to defend his work jurisdiction, tightly. For example, a teacher may see a way of increasing enrolment in the school but refuse to advise the management because he thinks he is not the admission officer. In a school organization where passive and defensive culture prevails, school members are expected to obey higher authority, please them and avoid interpersonal conflicts. Creatz (2009) writes that in a passive and defensive organization, rules, procedures and orders are more important than personal beliefs, ideas and judgment. Researches and scholastic write-ups are pointing to the fact that passive and defensive organizational cultures do not encourage competition and productivity. Staff and student bodies can be conflict prone, and with poor motivation and job satisfaction experiences (Luthans, 2005; Creatz, 2009). This culture certainly derails academic collaboration and advancement.

Liberal and Constructive School Leadership Culture: This is modern, liberal and open to new ideas and creativity. Staffs interact freely and students and other stakeholders see themselves as a team collaboratively working to achieve a common goal. The culture is typical of relaxed working atmospheres where staff members are encouraged to achieve success through innovation, skills and diligence. Individual efforts and creativities are encouraged, recognized, and commended. Staffs are free to develop and apply talents and potentials that will move the school forward. Orders and hierarchy are replaced with advice and collaboration. Dignity and self-esteem of staff members are highly placed.

Consequently, school staffs tend to be more committed and productive. Since they are emotionally and professionally motivated, they tend to give and do more for the success of the school system that have made them feel sense of belongingness. Evolving liberal and constructive rather than passive and defensive school organizational cultures is important in modern schools. In the 21^st Century, as patterns and focus of social interactions change in society, organization of school should also change advance. The following discussion presents strategies for evolving liberal and constructive organization culture that can make school become competitive and advancing.

Strategies That Initiatecompetitive And Progressive School Culture

The process of evolving liberal and constructive school organizational culture that will make an institution competefavorably tends to be gradual, focused and holistic. The following strategies could lead to the desired evolvement.

Framework of Action:  To evolve a liberal constructive culture in tertiary organization, there is need to design a framework of action that will specifically leadto the desired culture.School organizational culture can evolve positively if it is conscientiously planned and pursued. Organizational culture does not change easily (George, 2020). Thus, it is important that the managerial team of a tertiary institution has a blue print of the desired transformation. The blue print will include the mission and the vision of the school and how they want to achieve these through liberal leadership. Having the preplanned framework of actions for a changed leadership style will prevent unfavorable deviation. With good framework, the school has the pathway to bring about the desired style of leadership.

Socialization: There is also need to iconize and socialize every school member on the content of the framework. The mission and vision for the cultural change become more visible and real when iconize and strategically built into the facilities and systems of the school. Icon in this case does not mean just pictures or symbols that are generally recognized to be representative of the mission. Icon here implies depicting the new intending organizational culture in every aspect of the school activities. This could manifest in the school anthem, staff and students’ dress code, body comportment, duty schedules and even in the structure and arrangement of school buildings and/or office spaces. When the desired culture become symbolic, it is important every member of the organization is socialized to know, appreciate and practice the change.

Mentoring: Change in leadership style also requires creation of mentorship, particularly at the helm of leadership. Since organizational change is a phenomenon that is either rejected or accepted by the managerial team (Luthans, 2005), it is important that members of the managerial team lead by example towards the change. For example, the school Head will have to first start to tilt his administrative style towards liberal and constructive culture- away from closed and restricted leadership style that is peculiar to passive and defensive culture- if he wants the subordinates to become active, developed and innovative. This will create an avenue for mentoring. In a situation of an old school moving away from traditional hierarchical culture to the constructive culture, it is important the leaders initiate the movement so as to allay the fear of intimidation from the minds of the subordinates, for inspiring a change.     

Legalization: Developing and legalizing school ethics can lead to change in leadership style.School staffs particularly teachers are trained to obey school rules (Biehler & Snowman, 1982).  Having directives leading to the desired leadership style codified, written and official in the relevant school books is important. When the procedures and behaviours relating to the change become legal, the school staff will have backups upon which to insure their job and new behaviours within the school system. The school managerial team will also benefit as the document will become a reference point for melting disciplinary actions on deviants.  

Projection and Publicizing: The managerial team of a school that desire change in leadership style need to make the desire public, beyond the school premises. The    motives of the desired change should also be publicized. The motive may include achieving improved job delivery, student enrolment and academic achievement. Being a change that is hoped to give the school a friendlier outlook in society, it is important that outsiders are able to see the transformation in all aspects of the school. Right from the school building to the pattern of interactions put up by staffs when dealing with clients. People should be able to see the transformation. Doing this will attract attention to the school and eventually boost the school enrolment and societal trust.

Conclusion:

Administration of tertiary institution cannot remain traditional if the institutions must become autonomous and if the academic staff must enjoy some elements of academic freedom. Experiences and discussions have shown that when rigidity pervades an institution, sense of creativity and commitment to duties will drop. Nigerian tertiary institutions need to evolve standard administrative structure and relational schemes that can make them become productive and supportive to the developmental agenda of the societies within which they are created to serve.  

References

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

Religious organizations played a major role in the advent of western education in Nigeria. It was particularly championed by the European Christian missionaries who entered the country through the southern protectorate around 1842. The primary goal of the missionaries was to convert Africans to the Christian faith, though, basic literacy (in reading, writing, and counting) was introduced alongside the Bible in order to train individuals who would aid them in missionary activities. Before then, traditional education existed among the natives, and Islamic faith had already wrapped the northern region. Therefore, at the introduction of western education, while the southern protectorate was favourably disposed to it, the north resisted and saw it as a threat to the already established Islamic faith. The initial resistance laid the foundation for the educational imbalance between the north and the south. The attempt to bridge the gap eventually resulted to “skewed” national policies that have continued to deny access to equal educational opportunities among Nigerians. This article examines the religious factor that facilitated the establishment of western education and at the same time, underpinned the resistance to western education, the problem created, and the remedy struggle.  It also articulates the challenge of unequal access to educational opportunities in Nigeria.  The paper recommends possible remedies for equality of educational opportunities which include but not limited to equitable funding, community involvement, government legislation, and public advocacy among others.

Keywords: Education, Equality, Educational Opportunities

Introduction

The history of Western education in Nigeria (as it is in many other African countries) cannot be contemplated exhaustively without reference to the role religious organizations played in introducing and establishing western literacy. This role informed the opinion of Ezewu (1985) who describes the Western religion (Christianity) and Western education as twin. From antiquity and even in the modern era, education has been the most integral part of civilisation in any society. It has existed since the creation of man and has evolved in line with the developmental aspirations of mankind. This indicates that prior to the advent of the Western style of education in Nigeria, an indigenous form of education or literacy was already in existence.

The indigenous system of education was not seen as the ability to read and write, rather, young ones were taught the practical skills needed to function successfully in traditional society. Usually, children within two or three years of age belonged to an age group; together, they learned the customs of their communities and were assigned specific duties around the village, such as sweeping lanes or clearing bushes. As they grew older, the boys were introduced to farming and more specialised work, such as wood carving or drumming. Girls would learn farming and domestic chores.  Boys would often enter into apprenticeship-type relationships with master craftsmen. Even in the twenty-first century, this kind of education is common. In the north, education was copiously religious in nature with Islamic religion as the object of faith. In each Islamic community, a mallam drilled children as young as five years old in the teachings of the Qur’an and the Arabic alphabet. Historically, Arabian merchants had introduced Islamic religion in the north as early as 11^th and 12^th centuries, and according to Fafunwa (1978), Islam lasted more than three centuries in the north before Christian missionaries set their foot on the geographical space that is regarded today as Nigeria.

The aim of the missionaries who brought Western education to Nigeria through the southern protectorate was almost similar to the Muslim Arabs who brought Islamic education into the Northern protectorate centuries before. The only initial difference one might notice was the desire for economic activities by the Arabs. Christian missionaries on the other hand avowed to liberate the dark minds of the Africans from barbarism and idolatry (Aloy, 2001). The economic and political factors came much later. It is clear that from the cradle, the North and South had substantial disharmonious experiences with the question of Western education; while the South embraced the western form of literacy which was introduced by Christian missionaries, the North embraced, prioritized, and placed more premium on Qur’anic education above any other form of literacy. These initial differences in educational experiences of the north and south remained unresolved throughout the colonial era and eventually became a subject of national contention which has resulted in skewed policies that do not grant equal educational and employment opportunities to all Nigerians.

Concept of Equality

Equality is a fundamental concept that plays a pivotal role in various aspects of human society, encompassing both social and political dimensions. Ekechukwu (2018) stated that equality embodies the principle that all individuals should be treated with fairness, impartiality, and justice, regardless of their characteristics, such as race, gender, age, socioeconomic status, or any other distinguishing factor. Equality is often considered as a cornerstone of human rights, democratic governance, and social justice; and is enshrined in numerous national and international legal frameworks. Equality is not just a philosophical concept; it is also enshrined in numerous national constitutions and international agreements. For instance, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), adopted by the United Nations in 1948, explicitly asserts the principle of equality before the law and equal protection of the law in Article 7 and Article 21, respectively. Equal educational opportunities imply that every individual should have the ability to enroll in and attend educational institutions, from preschool to higher education, without any undue barriers. This includes physical access to schools, access to resources, materials and teachers. Ensuring equal educational opportunities is often seen as a fundamental principle for promoting social justice and creating a level playing field for all individuals (Nwogu, 2015). It can be a challenging goal to achieve, as it requires addressing systemic inequalities and providing necessary resources to underserved communities. Various legal frameworks and policies are in place in many countries to promote equal educational opportunities, but disparities still exists and efforts are ongoing to improve access and quality of education for all.

Concept of Educational Opportunities

Educational opportunities refer to various ways and means through which individuals can acquire knowledge, skills and expertise to further their personal and professional development (Ekechukwu, 2018).  These opportunities can vary widely in terms of format, level and focus, and play a crucial role in enhancing one’s education and career prospects. Furthermore, the concept of educational opportunities refers to the idea that all individuals should have equal access to quality education, regardless of their background, socioeconomic status, race, gender, and other personal characteristics. It embodies the belief that education is a fundamental human right and that it should be available to everyone on an equitable basis. According to Nwogu (2015), educational opportunities encompass several key principles such as equity, inclusivity, equality, accessibility, life-learning etc. Educational opportunities are critical for personal growth, career advancement, and societal development. The availability and accessibility of these opportunities can vary depending on factors such as location, financial resources, and individual circumstances. Nonetheless, they are essential for individuals to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to achieve their goals and contribute to their communities. Efforts to promote educational opportunities are central to addressing educational inequalities and ensuring that all individuals can reach their full potential. Governments, institutions, and individuals can play a role in advancing this concept through policy, funding, and advocacy for inclusive and equitable education systems.

Education

Education is one of the essential elements in the socialisation process that trains the mind, unwrapped human capabilities, and empowers man with both intellectual and social skills to attain his existential aspirations. Education could be formal or informal, organised in basic or sophisticated modes, whichever form it comes, it is regarded as a key index for measuring development in every society. Dewey (1916) construes education as the process of remaking experience, giving it a more socialised value through increased individual experience, by giving the individual better control over his own powers. Every society has one form of education or the other but when western education is mentioned as applied in this context, it refers to a non-indigenous type of education that emanates from the western culture of reading, writing, and arithmetic (3Rs of education). This is a European form of education that came in through the shores of most African countries and Nigeria inclusive. It is an educative system that entered Nigeria through the southern protectorate of the country between 1842-1914 by the European Christian missionaries with the aim of establishing Christianity. These missionary activities saw the establishment of mission schools where western literacy was taught and the eventual gains of western education became an incentive to the natives. According to Bowen (1972), the function of western education was to enable people to perform useful roles in their community or environment.

The Penetration of Western Education in Southern Nigeria

The earliest set of Europeans that came to Nigeria were the Portuguese merchants who first came to Benin in the early part of the 15th century. Aside from their commercial interest, they started teaching the children of the Oba of Benin including children from other royal families. However, no substantial western education was established until the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Remarkable efforts towards introducing western education in Nigeria started in 1842 (Taiwo, 1980). The missionary organisation that first introduced western education in Nigeria was the Wesleyan Methodist Society, which opened the Christian mission station at Badagry, near Lagos. The activities of this society were facilitated by an ex-slave of the Yoruba extraction, named Ferguson who had earlier returned to the area. It was he who succeeded in persuading the Yoruba chiefs to bring the missionaries from Sierra Leone into Badagry. This effort saw the coming of Thomas Birch Freeman and Mr. and Mrs. De Graft in September 1842 under the auspices of the Wesley Methodist Society to establish the first-ever Christian mission station in the area.

According to Fafunwa (1978), the effort of the Wesleyan Methodist Society was consolidated further by three missionaries of the Church Missionary Society who arrived in Badagry from where they later moved to Abeokuta. On the team were Rev. Samuel Ajayi Crowther, (later Bishop), Mr.Henry Townsend, and Mr. G.A. Coll man. Samuel Ajayi Crowther settled at Igbehin and established two schools – one for boys and the other for girls, while Townsend settled in Ake, another part of the town, where he built a mission house, a church, and a school. This was the beginning of real rivalry among the Christian Missions in Nigeria. The Methodists, who started the first evangelical work in Nigeria, did not take this news kindly and so decided to send a lay missionary to Abeokuta to commence work there. As the Catholic Mission Society was consolidating its activities around Abeokuta and Badagry and “extending its evangelical programmes to other parts of the country, Samuel Ajayi Crowther opened the first school in Onitsha in December 1858 for girls between the ages of 6 and 10 (Fafunwa, 1978). Down Calabar and Bonny, Church Mission Society missionaries started the work of introducing western education among the people. The chiefs of the area were however, not interested in the evangelical activities of the missionaries, but would rather want their children to be taught how to gauge palm oil and other merchant businesses as trading was the main interest of the people of the area. The missionaries had no option but to accept the people’s wishes. The Presbyterian Mission also made its presence known in 1846 and established a mission house. Another Baptist Convention established itself at Ijaye Abeokuta in 1853. The society of the African Mission similarly arrived in Lagos and established its mission in 1868. Unfortunately, as noted by Fafunwa (1978), each denomination emphasized its own importance and spared no pains at proving that one denomination was better than the other. As these denominations moved further into the hinterland, they established schools for the training of the catechists and teachers.

Penetration of Western Education in Northern Nigeria

The northern protectorate was the seat of Islamic education as earlier mentioned. The values of Islamism were already deeply rooted in the minds of the inhabitants who were predominantly Muslims. This peculiarity, together with geographical terrain determined the pace of development of western education in the region. Gbadamosi (1967) reported that the northern Emirs were less enthusiastic about accepting and adopting a system that they considered an “enemy” of their faith. Based on the resistance of the Emirs, Lord Lugard, the Governor of the Northern region persisted in warning the Christian Missionaries against the consequences that would result from spreading Christianity in the area. His warnings to the Christian missionaries according to Gbadamosi (1967) are contained in the following words “I see no reason religion be it of one sort or another should be forced upon the natives – I see much in it to exasperate the Muhammadan master who considers himself robbed of his property, that we may further a religious propaganda hostile to its creed.” This skepticism notwithstanding, the missionaries were able to get to the middle belt region of the north. By the year 1913, only four schools had been established but exclusively for the training of the sons of traditional rulers who would take over administrative functions from their fathers. One school was also established for the training of mallams. The aims of schooling were restricted to imparting academic knowledge to produce a literate ruling class and few educated people to assist the colonial administration.

Religious pledges affected the course of Western education in the Northern Protectorate since Western education was provided at the time only by Christian missionaries. The problem of the missionaries became by implication the problem of introducing Western education since there was religious suspicion among the northern leaders.   Ozigi and Ocho (1981) asserted that Lugard had some admiration for those missionaries who sacrificed much in the cause of their work and this personal admiration as well as his belief in the value of the missionary forces as a handmaid to the establishment of British rule made him allow few missionary enterprises in the region. The Toronto Industrial Mission was allowed by both the Government and the local Emirs to operate in Pategi, the present Niger State. It was under similar circumstances that the same mission and the C.M.S. were allowed to move into Bida in 1902. In Muri, there was Cambridge University Mission by 1904, and in the same year, Mennonite Brethren were at Ilorin. In 1904 also, Lugard was willing to allow Dr Miller of the C.M.S. to open a station the following year at the memorable place, Kano. These missionary establishments at Pategi, Nupe, Ilorin, etc., were made with the consent of the local Emirs and with the permission of the Government (Gbadamosi, 1967). They were primarily missionaries, but they were expected to commence the provision of education shortly after. In summary, northern Nigeria initially resisted western education due to the fear of their children being converted to Christianity coupled with the support of the colonial administration who did not want administrative disruption in the region.

The Challenges of Equality to Education Opportunities in Nigeria

Western education was opposed by the northern protectorate; it was perceived as a threat to Islamism which was the dominant religious affiliation of the northern population. Adesina (1988) alluded that the colonial authorities also did not do much to salvage the situation; Lugard in particular, did not want to coerce the people into accepting western education for fear of uprising. Therefore, he cautioned the missionaries (who could have extended western education to the northern population) to restrict their activities to “pagan” areas. By 1960, after Nigeria’s independence, it became glaring to northern Nigeria that their initial resistance to western education was a minus and it had placed them at a great disadvantage. The administrative structure bequeathed to Nigeria by the British administrators needed men who had literacy in western education (rather than Quaranic literacy) to handle various administrative offices in the new country, Nigeria. While the North was in want of personnel (educated people) to feature in administrative positions, the South had a considerable number of personnel who were well-educated in Western literacy to take up the available jobs. It became obvious that there was a huge gap between the North and the South in terms of Western education and employment opportunities.

Consequently, the Federal Government initiated policies targeted at bridging this gap and the result was the introduction of the quota system, educationally advantaged and disadvantaged states, and catchment areas (Onwuka, 1997). The sole goal was to create more opportunities for certain categories of people to be able to reduce the “imbalance” in the attainment of Western education and employment opportunities between north and south. These policies have turned out to represent a systematic denial of equal access to educational opportunities in Nigeria. Pitfalls inherent in these policies violate applicants’ equal rights to education as provided for in the 1999 constitution as amended. It is a discriminatory admission process that works to favour some school applicants from particular states more than others. The implementation of these policies has generated criticism and controversies among ethnic nationalities and regions within the country.

These policies according to Onwuka (1997) were supposedly aimed at addressing issues of ethnic or regional representation in the public sector. The implication is that issues of admission, recruitment, promotion, and appointment are based on these principles. The implementation of these policies have divided the country along ethnic, religious, majority-minority, and advantaged-disadvantaged lines. Unfortunately, education has had its fair share of struggles resulting in an educationally imbalanced society. Nigeria is suffering the effect of the initial northern resistance to Western education which was underpinned by religious considerations.  As it stands today, the policy is construed as “robbing Peter to give John”, thus enthroning mediocrity (Olabisi, 2019). One of the effects of these absurd policies is continuous suffering in the land in spite of its rich human and capital resources, to the extent that the country is now named the world’s poverty capital. While the major reason for formulating the quota policy is to foster even development and unity among the over three hundred ethnic nationalities in the country, the evidence on the ground, however, shows that the system is not only killing the quest for excellence and distinction in some parts of the country, it is making others to wallow in frustration giving them a sense of dejection.

 In university admission, for instance, 45 percent of candidates are admitted based on merit, 35 percent based on catchment areas while 20 percent go to educationally less developed states. In other words, only 45 percent of slots in public universities are merit-based in the true sense of the word. Other considerations apart from merit determine those that get the remaining 55 percent slots.  Olabisi (2019) observed that the situation is worse in Federal Government secondary schools referred to as unity schools. In these schools, some candidates do not need more than between 4 and 10 marks over 300, to gain admission, while others are required to score as high as 139 to get a slot. The cut-off marks for male pupils from Yobe and Zamfara states in 2022 entrance examination to Federal Government Colleges for example, were a mere 2 and 4 respectively, likewise, a male candidate from Taraba state only needed 3 points out of 300 to gain admission, whereas the minimum score for any pupil from Anambra state was pegged at 139 in the same examination. This is a clear case of unequal access which if not addressed will truncate the nation’s quest for inclusive development.

Many countries of the world that adopted quota system and other skewed policies in school enrolment and employment have started reneging on them. In Malawi for instance, the quota system has remained a contentious policy same for India and Pakistan. In these countries, there is a growing public clamour for the populace to go to school and work based on their qualifications and abilities rather than where an individual comes from. This is because they have realised that the quota system is discriminatory in nature. This means that when an inferior candidate is considered above a more qualified person just because government wants to create a balance, striving for excellence becomes meaningless. Getting outstanding leaders is also a challenge when merit is relegated to the background in the government recruitment process.

Possible Remedies for Inequalities of Educational Opportunities

Equalising inequality in educational opportunities is a complex and multifaceted challenge that requires a combination of policies, programmes and societal efforts. Here’s an outline of various ways to address this issue:

Early Childhood Education: Universal access to high-quality preschool and early childhood education programs to ensure that all children enter school ready to learn.

Equitable School Funding: Reform the funding structure of schools to reduce disparities between wealthy and underprivileged districts. Eliminate discriminatory practices, such as tracking or biased discipline policies that disproportionately affect minority and low-income students. Ensure that all students have access to the internet and necessary technology for remote learning, especially in the post-pandemic world.

Community Involvement: Engage parents and the community in the educational process to create a supportive environment for learning. There should be a partnerships between schools, local businesses, and community organisations to provide additional resources and opportunities for students.

Government Policies and Legislation: Government should enact and enforce anti-discrimination laws and policies at local, state, and federal levels to prevent discrimination in education.

Public Awareness and Advocacy: Raise awareness about educational inequality and encourage public support for measures to address it through advocacy campaigns and community engagement. Equalizing educational opportunities is an ongoing process that requires the cooperation of government, educational institutions, communities, and individuals. By implementing a combination of these strategies, it is likely to make progress toward a more equitable education system.

Conclusion

Religion played a fundamental role in the establishment of Western education in Nigeria and its entry point was from the south. All attempts to aggressively extend it to the northern region were vehemently resisted by the northern (Muslim) leaders with the support of the colonial authorities. The North later realised the value of Western education and the attempt to catch up with the South informed the policies that are mentioned above. These measures are not in the best interests of Nigeria as a whole. It will benefit everyone if the Federal Government can abolish it. Admission to Federal Government institutions should be based only on merit. Students should be permitted to compete in a fair and reasonable manner. The decision to attend school should be based on a student’s knowledge, talents, and ability rather than religion, state of origin, or geographical region. It will be unjust for the Federal Government to continue to push education on individuals who are unlikely to be interested in learning while denying other willing citizens the opportunity, all in the name of balancing the books. State governments should be tasked with closing education gaps in their respective states; only by doing so can the nation progress.

An enduring national unity has been one of the key goals of Nigeria since her independence. The reason is not far-fetched especially given that an enduring national unity is regarded as a conditio sine qua non (an essential condition) for sustainable development. National unity is a condition wherein the citizens of a country consisting of diverse ethnic groups, religious beliefs and regions co-exist peacefully as one united country in accordance with given national ideology and federal constitution (Chang, Azizan & Amran, 2013). For the above authors, ensuring national unity in any country often requires collective efforts of both government and the citizens. However, creating a suitable environment in which national unity thrives is an important duty of any responsible government. This very important duty of the government is often discharged in line with extant laws and/or government policies. Expectedly, sections 18(1) and 42(1) of the 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria as amended were designed to guarantee all school applicants in Nigeria through equal rights and provision of adequate educational

opportunities, a level playing ground as steps in the right direction towards providing an enabling environment for upholding national unity (FRN, 1999). To further ensure that various disuniting forces like; the initial lopsided educational advancement which seems to have placed some regions in Nigeria at vantage positions and as well occasioned uneven socio-economic development are weakened, the quota system principle was reinstituted by federal government of Nigeria. The quota system principle was once operational during the colonial rule in Nigeria but resurfaced in post-colonial Nigeria as an upshot of the constitution drafting committee, inaugurated during the military presidency of Murtala Mohammed in 1975 (Onwuka, 1997). The reintroduction of the quota system principle in post-colonial Nigeria was a response to the forces of multiethnicity of the new independent state. Nigeria’s multiethnic nature as well as the initial uneven educational advancement was regarded as potent centrifugal force due to the endemic problems of acrimonious existence as witnessed among the diverse groups and interests, often resulting to mutual distrust, inter-ethnic conflicts, fear of domination of one ethnic group over another and instability steering towards possible disintegration of the polity. 

The above are believed to have made expedient, the need for national integration as it applies to building a

unified nation-state out of the desperate ethnic and geographic elements by ensuring that every part of the county is carried along. It was however not long after the reinstitution of the quota system principle that it found its way into the educational sector. As a principle to be applied to students’ admission into federal government owned schools, it is to help address disparities in educational attainments of different areas of the country and inequalities in socio-economic development which create perennial acrimonies promoting disunity in Nigeria. However, it is regrettable to note that with more than forty years gone since the introduction of the quota system of admission in Nigeria’s educational sector, the problem of inequality among various regions with regard to educational advancement cum socio-economic development seem to have continued to linger. Thus, aggravating further agitations by some ethnic groups and/or regions in Nigeria especially non-beneficiaries of the quota system of

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Aloy, P. (2001). The advent of Western education. Retrieved on 23 July, 2023 from             https://www.scribd.com/document/405726912/THE-ADVENT-OF-WESTERN-   EDUCATION-docx

Ekechukwu, L. E. (2018). Equality of educational opportunities in Nigeria. World Applied            Sciences Journal. 36(3), 499-505.

Ezewu, E. (1983). Sociology of education. Retrieved on 19 July, 2023 from             https://books.google.com.ng/books/about/Sociology_of_Education.html?id=y2KgzQEA            CAAJ&redir_esc=y

Fafunwa, B. A. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. Great Britain: George Allen &     amp;Unwin Ltd,

Gbadamosi, G. O. (1967). The establishment of Western wducation among Muslims in Nigeria.    Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 4(1), 89-115.

Nwogu, G. A. (2015). Barriers to equality of access to educational opportunity in Nigeria: A        philosophical perspective. Journal of Education and Practice. 6(4), 227-236.

Olabisi, A. F. (2019). Nigeria at 59: time to review the quota system. Retrieved on 22^nd October, 2023 from  https://www.thecable.ng/nigeria-59-time-to-review-the-quota-system

Onwuka, C. J. A. (1997). History of Nigerian education: philosophical and political dimension.    Onitsha: Geelink Publishers.

Ozigi, A. & Ocho, L. (1981). Education in Northern Nigeria, UK: George Allen & amp;Unwin

Taiwo, C.O. (1980). The Nigerian education system – past, present and future. Lagos:  Thomas
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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

Governing Council is a statutory body constituted by the Federal Government for the control of policy, finance, personnel and physical resources of tertiary institutions. Colleges of Education are tertiary institutions established to train learners to become teachers in the primary and post primary school sectors for self-actualization and contribute to national development. Governing Council of Federal Colleges of Education just as the one of other tertiary institutions is a statutory body consisting of highly rated individuals, specially selected based on the requirements as stipulated in the ACT. Broadly speaking the body considers and approves the plan of activities, programme of studies, annual estimates and investment plans of the colleges. The composition, tenure and powers of the council members are gazette in the Federal Republic of Nigeria federal college of education official ACT with the most recent ACT published in 2023 as captured in this article. The Governing Council whether previous or the recent ACT of 2023 has no problem with its contents, it has always been laudable and received public nods. The problem of the council has always been the challenge inleadership. The mode of appointment of leaders, calibers of leaders, absence ofthe autonomy of leaders, inadequate finance, embezzlement etc, has always been the undoing of the governing council. Good leadershipwith proper enabling environment is key to the success of every organization and institution. The paper therefore looked at the Governing Council of Federal College of Education in Nigeria, 2023 ACT, the challenge of the leadership of the governing council, and posits that; Competent and strategic individuals should be appointed as council membersdevoid of political sentiments and affiliation, adequate provision of  funds for smooth operation of the councils, autonomy in the system among others, as the way forward for quality output of the councils in the colleges of education  in Nigeria.

Keywords: Governing council, College of Education, Leadership.

Introduction

Governing council is a statutory body constituted by the federal or state government for the control of policy, finance, personnel and physical resources of tertiary institutions, or a body responsible for policy making and regulations for higher institutions. According to Bensa cited in Ogbonnaya  (2009), Governing council is a mixture of persons from within and without the institution that are elected in such a way to include representatives of business and industry.  Also Ezecited in Ogbonnaya (2009), opined that the Chairmen of governing council and most of its members are laymen chosen to serve on the basis of their being in good public standing as well as represent external interest.The governing council of the state colleges of education just as the one of other tertiary institutions, generally consists of highly rated individuals drawn from different senatorial zones of the state. They are supposed to be men and women of competence, integrity, strategic with good leadership qualities to be able to represent the interest of various groups and stake-holders. Members of the governing council of the federal government owned colleges of education other than the Federal College of Education (technical), consist of a chairman and the following members to be appointed by the President; four persons that are reputable in the discipline of arts, science and technical education, who shall be former or serving teachers or educationists. Competent administrators and broadly speaking, representative of the whole Federation, one of whom shall be a woman, among other members.

The governing council usually meets at definite periods of time scheduled to deliberate on important issues governing the institution, such as, budget implementation, students discipline and dismissal of staff, acquiring of equipment, furniture and other property needed in the institution, preparation and submission of annual report on the administration and activities of the institution to the government as well as other responsibilities assigned to the council by the ACT. Education is key to national development, and more so education need to be qualitative. Qualitative Education according to Sunday, Nendelmwa, Suwa and Su’an (2017), is one that provides all learners with capabilities that they need in order to become economically productive, develop sustainable livelihoods and contribute their quota to a peaceful and democratic society. The national policy on education (2013), corroborated that there is need for functional education where school programme need to be related, practical and for the promotion of progressive and united Nigeria. Successful operation of an educational institution as Federal College of Education, require competent governing council members who are strategic and effective leaders to achieve the goals of teacher education. Teachers are the bedrock in the education enterprise. The national policy on education (2013), captured it vividly that no education system can rise above the quality of the teachers. Teacher education and quality education are two key players for national development. Consequently tertiary institutions such as College of Education that are established to train teachers must be given serious attention on policy matters, especially crucial matters revolving on leadership in the Governing Council that act as a hub in which the wheel of the institutions revolves. The problem of our nation has never been on the drawing board, but on policy implementation and leadership. If our nation must achieve qualitative education for individual self-actualization and national developmentin the colleges of Education, the Government must give serious attention to address the contending issues in the leadership of the Governing Councils of Colleges of Education in Nigeria.

Governing Council of Federal Colleges of Education

Composition of the Council Members

• The Council of each College, other than a Federal College of Education (technical) shall consist of a Chairman and the following members to be appointed by the President.
• Four persons that are reputable in the discipline of arts, sciences and technical education, who shall be former or serving teachers or educationists. Competent administrators and broadly speaking, representatives of the whole Federation, one of whom shall be a woman:
• Other members include:

(i) A representative of the Federal Ministry of Education;

(ii) A representative of the Regulatory Commission;

(iii) The Provost, and

(iv) The Deputy Provost:

• A representatives of the Alumni Association
• Two persons, not below the rank of Chief Lecturer, elected by the Academic Board, from among its members:
• Four persons to be elected by the Congregation, from amongst its members out of whom two persons shall not below the rank of chief lecturer or its equivalent. The other two persons shall be non-teaching staff, not below the rank of Deputy Registrar or its equivalent; and consist of chairman to be appointed by the president and the following members:
• The Registrar who shall be the secretary of the Council
• The council of each Federal College of Education (Technical) shall consist of a Chairman to be appointment by the President and the following members
• Four persons from the discipline of science and technology, technical education or a competent administrator, who shall be a former or serving teacher, educationist or administrator, and broadly speaking, representative of the whole Federation, one of whom shall be a woman:
• Other members are:

(i) A representative of the Federal Ministry of Education

(ii) A representative of the Regulatory Commission

(iii) The Provost, and;

(iv) The Deputy Provost.

• Four persons to be elected by the Congregation, from amongst its members out of which two persons shall not be below the rank of Chief Lecturer or its equivalent, and the remaining two persons shall be non-teaching staff, not below the rank of deputy registrar or its equivalent.
• A representative of Nigeria Society of Engineers;
• A representative of College Alumni
• Two persons, not below the rank of Chief Lecturer, elected by the Academic Board, from among its members; and
• The Registrar shall be the secretary to Council
• The Federal College of Education (special), shall have the same composition as the Federal Colleges Education (Conventional) in addition to two member who are persons living disability. The Federal College of Education (special), implies that it’s not just a typical education establishment. Its special mandate is to train teachers at NCE Level who can cater for both normal and special needs students’ at the primary and the lower arm of secondary education. Its uniqueness extends to being the only tertiaryeducational institution in Nigeria with the largest concentration of staff and student with special needs. By its special nature, the College welcomes students from across the nation. A conventional college here would mean a college that offers normal instructional centered traditional education, which includes all the requirements of traditional teaching and learning such as crowded classroom and information sharing.

Tenure of the Council Members

• A member of the Council shall hold office for a term of three years and, subject to the provisions of subsection (2), may be eligible for re-appointment or re-election, for a further term of three years and no more.
• There shall be no vacuum in the Council of the Colleges if:

(i) A member exist from the Council, or

(ii) The President dissolves the Council;

(iii) The President shall make an immediate replacement.

• The office of members appointed under section 5, subsection (1), (2) and (3) of the ACT shall become vacant if the-
• A members resigns his office by notice in writing under his hand, or
• Minister, in consultation with the Council is satisfied that it is not in the interest of the College for the person appointed to continue in office and notifies the member in writing to that effect.

Powers of the Council

• The Council has power to –

(i) Approve for the Colleges to receive from a student or any other person attending the College for the purpose of teaching or instruction, fee as the Council may, with the prior approval of the Minister, determine;

• Provide amenities for and make any other provision for the welfare of staff of the colleges:
• Invest the funds of the Colleges in securities, specified by law or in other securities in Nigeria, as may be approved by the Ministry of Education.
• Source for funds within Nigeria for the purpose of development of the Colleges. In such manner upon the security, as the Federal Ministry of Education may authorize;
• Recruit qualified and competent staff for the Colleges;
• Ratify the establishment and maintenance of schools, department and other teaching units within the Colleges or extramural department as may be recommended by the Academic Board;
• Provide any course of instruction, either alone or in association with other institutions whether in Nigeria or not, as the Council may determine and approve: and encourage and make provision for research and research grants in the Colleges.

Challenges

Political appointees

Mitch (2008)averred that the fundamental meaning of leadership has not changed in all of recorded history. It has always been about the person in-charge of a group. Being a leader has always meant having power over people and the authority to make decisions for the group. In the context of Colleges of education which is the subject of this paper, leadership would naturally refer to the officers of the institutions as recognized by the laws and status that establish those institutions. Ideally, council members appointed to serve in these institutions ought to come through careful selection, but it is not the case with Nigeria. Government appoints politicians who may not have the requisite skills to manage these institutions as council members. Their appointmentto the councils is usually not based on qualification or merit, but rather on political compensation and the likes, the end product is ineffective leadership and low productivity in the institutions.

Political instability

It is a known fact thatLeadership changes produce changes and shifts in policy and programme focuses. Different regimes and administrationshave different interests, challenges and approaches. Political changesthat is lacking in responsibility,accountability and vision in education often leads to eroding the existing  structures, processes and quality of education. Thus, it may be concluded that political instability also produces instability in education policies, approaches, management, processes and outcomes.Frequent changes in government,programmes and unstable political appointments do not give room for indebt programme planning and execution by the governing councils in the colleges of education.

Funding

The critical area of needs of the institutions to advance them into vortex of the intellectual highway of the 21^stcenturyyet to be adequately addressed in our tertiary institutions   is funding. A major challenge to the development of the right caliber of men and women that will form the critical mass of the next generation of academic leaders and researchers is funding. Funding affects decision making which also has its impact on governance. There is urgent need to invest more in Federal and State colleges of education since these institutions produces middle man power to the nation. For Nigeria to advance to global competitiveness in higher education delivery, greater financial investment than is currently available is required. Funds are required for the provision of state of the art equipment that will facilitate research and proper maintenance capacity. There is no way Nigerian Colleges of Education can competefavorably with their counterparts with best practices without the provision of well-equipped laboratories workshops and libraries. A lot of funds are required for these purposes as well as for more exposure of our academics and other College staff to global best practices through attendance at international conferences, workshops and seminars. Without adequate funds council members will be termed unproductive in their their respective operating institutions, besides, they need funds  for their statutory allowances a morale booster.

Avid Unionization

Arising from the challenges of inadequate funding and financing is the consequent emerging trend of avid unionism. Indeed, many of the unions in the Colleges have become rather uncompromising and militant. They often times pursue an operation that makes them commit entirely to bringing down an already comatose institution rather than allow for dialogue which is mutually beneficial (Ayorinde, 2022).The position of the unions is perhaps motivated by distrust engendered by many years of militarism which foisted on the institutions and some form of sole administrator ship which is alien or foreign to culture of constructive engagement and intellectual debate ahead of decision-making. This phenomenon alongsidetussles anddisagreement   with the councilmembers bycollege unionism often impedes the smooth operations of the councils and the institutions.

 Incompetent hands

The issue of governance is not limited to the College Governing Councils alone. The academic boardofthe institutions has great roles to play. Indeed, for quality assurance the Council and Academic Boardhas significant roles to play. A major plaque here is the quality of the membership of these bodies and other commitment to the institutions beyond mounting such commitments. It appears that in the effort of securing staff at every level of the academic for the different academic programmes in the face of expansion due to access, many individuals with inadequate qualifications or inappropriate pedigree are often recruited into the College. Many of themlack knowledge of institutional management and often behave at cross purposes to institutional objective and pursue personalinterest.

Embezzlement

Another serious challenge facing the management of Federal and State Colleges of Education in Nigeria today is how to handle funds allocated to education sector. It appears the managers of these Colleges including some governing council members are not living up to expectation in carrying out their statutory responsibilities in the area of funds management devoid of misappropriation. This was seen from the views of Ekankumo (2014) and Kemebaradikumo (2014) who stated that the major challenge facing tertiary education is poor funding and misappropriation of funds within the educational system that leadsto dysfunctional and unethical practices that has hindered education system across Nigeria. Embezzlement is outright taking away of government assets for personal use.

The Way Forward

As the way forward first and foremost, individuals to be appointed into the governing council should be on merit and not on political grounds, affiliation or compensation but men and women of  zero tolerance on corruption with proven integrity. They should be people that acquire the needed  competencies with strategic leadership skills. Sofa (2005) described competency as a quality of specific behavior identifiable in the summation of behavioral incidents, a degree of quality of behavior which produce the required performance needed for a particular job. Shoemaker, Krupp, & Howland (2013), identified the skills of strategic leadership to include; the ability to anticipate, challenge, interpret, decide align and learn. Davis in Stumpf, Fulmer &Bleak (2004), said that strategic leaders are leaders, who have organization ability, with strategic orientation, translating strategy into action, assign people and organization, determine effective strategic intervention point and develop strategic competencies. Men and women to be appointed into the governing council need to possess these qualities to successfully pilot the affairs of the institutions under their purview.

 Following the Management Study Guide (2013:1), the following qualities are recommended as guideline in the selection of council members;

• Loyalty to their vision by their word and action
• Keeping themselves updated about what is happening within their organization
• Judicious use of power, they play the power game skillfully, push their ideas gradually without forcing them upon others.
• They have a wider perspective and outlook, not narrowed in their specialty but a little knowledge about a lot of things.
• They are very motivational with zeal for working and inclination to achieve goals with energy and determination.
• They have compassion as understanding he views and feeling of their subordinates.
• Self-controlled in nature with potential to control distracting and disturbing mood and desires.
• Social skills of friendliness and being social
• Self-awareness and potentials to understand their moods and desires, thinks before acting
• Readiness to delegate and authorize; they are proficient at delegation to avoid over loading of responsibilities on the leaders and motivates the subordinates.
• Articulately communicate their vision to the organization members so as to boost them, and constantly covey their vision until it becomes a component of institution or organization culture.

Another way forward for effective leadership of council members to achieving the institutional goals and objectives is availability of fund for their successful operation because the major reason why most educational policy fails is related to inadequate funding. Peretomode (2009), complained ofinadequate funding or impress made available in the systems, no provision for stationeries, even old equipment are not maintained and there are no conducive office accommodation. Also Anuna (2004), has the view that inadequate fund has been the bane of supervision and have almost destroyed   inspection in Nigeria. The federal government and all the other concern bodies should therefore as a matter of urgency always make funds available  for  smooth operation of colleges and council members  allowances given to them as at when due for maximum productivity in the institutions.Absence of fundsimpedes productivity irrespective of  leadership competencies.

Administrative autonomy is another  factor that should be addressedfor the successful leadership operation of the council members for quality output in the college system. Administrative Autonomy refers to public Organization ability to determine their own references as well as translating them into authoritative actions. (Bach. 2010). In an autonomous organization, decision making is faster than in a hierarchical organization and easier to respond to change instantly, because decisions and actions can be made at the discretion of the frontline (Goalous 2021). Autonomy where power and decision making discretion are decentralized, is an effective and flexible leadership tool for governing councils of federal colleges of Education for quick policy implementation and quality output in the institutions. The appointment, tenure and operations of the councils should be autonomous free fromexcessive political and government interference and control. Also a law should be enacted to guarantee continuity of council members until the end of their tenure irrespective of changes in government and political leaders. The need to promote cordial and harmonious relationship between the council members and the college unionism is sacrosanct to foster a healthy and peaceful work environment for the council in order to achieve the cooperate goals and objectives of the institutions.

Conclusion

Governing council of federal colleges of education is a statutory body constituted with broad objectives to consider and approve the plan of activities, programmes of studies, course and research to be undertaken, annual estimates and investment plan of the college. The role of the governing council is vital for the actualization of the institution goals and objectives. Leadership is one of the most vital aspects of human endeavors and institutional development, yet grossly neglected in our institutions today. Leadership goes beyond occupying a position; it is commitment to a course, and actualization of the goals. If our colleges of education whether federal or state must rise above its present state of average and favorable fit into the global economy, the contending issues of governing council leadership challenges must be addressed in Nigeria.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This paper examined administrative autonomy in Nigeria tertiary education. Tertiary education is an autonomous public institution with general function of providing liberal tertiary education, and encouraging the advancement of learning throughout Nigeria. Administrative autonomy is the management of men and women with most highly developed and developing minds and intellects. The ultimate aim of tertiary education activities is application of affairs of men. The active agents are the academic staff and students. Tertiary education in Nigeria is in state of crisis. The survival of our tertiary institutions in Nigeria is dependent largely on the quality of administrative services available. Administrative therefore influence the result to achieved, the direction to be pursued and the priorities to be recognized within the organization.  The paper stresses the concept of administrative autonomy, autonomy, types of administrative autonomy. The paper stated the essential ingredient of institutional autonomy, historical overview of autonomy in Nigeria universities, what is tertiary education, goals of tertiary education, autonomy in tertiary education in Nigeria, problems of administrative autonomy and strategies to ensure ideal tertiary education autonomy, conclusion and recommendations.

Keywords: Administrative, autonomy, tertiary, education

Introduction

Autonomy is a principle upon which the tertiary education system normally operates and through which operational stability and actualisation of goals of the tertiary educational institutions are ensured. Tertiary education exists to generate and disseminate knowledge, skills, and information, which are critical to the development of the individual and the society at large. Nigerian tertiary education encompasses universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. It plays a crucial role in the country’s development. When autonomy is enthroned in the right perspective, it facilitates academic freedom and accountability. The survival of the tertiary education system is directly proportional to, or to a large extent dependent on the institutionalisation of autonomy. In order to accomplish these noble goals, autonomy must of necessity be enshrined in the system. This has been the position in place since the inception of the tertiary education system in the middle ages (Ajayi 2004). Administrative autonomy, when it is fully attained in tertiary education, will give the institutions the freedom to independently determine the number of students to be admitted, the cut off mark for admission, the appointment and termination of university staff and heads, formulation of academic policies and general control of standards and all other activities within the institution. According to Ojedele and Ilusanya (2006) administrative autonomy is intended to protect university education from unnecessary interference from government agents in the day-to-day running of the institutions. The question of autonomy to Nigerian tertiary institution is a matter of necessity if quality output is required or expected, and for guaranteed uninterrupted academic calendar. The incessant face- off between the ASUU and the government should be put to rest through providing enabling teaching- learning environment is to be assured. The struggle for tertiary institution autonomy has been a long- standing matter in the tertiary educational institution system in Nigeria. For a tertiary institution to be truly autonomous, the state control must be minimal. 

Concept of Autonomy

According to Akinnaso (2021) autonomy is derived from two Greek words (Auto) means self and (Nomo) meaning ‘Law’. When put together, the two words means to give oneself own law or being a ruler of oneself. Autonomy entails the ability of a person, group of person or an organization to make informed decisions without unnecessary interference from external authority. It entails a degree of freedom, self-independence or the capacity of an organization to act independently. Autonomy is opposed to centralisation of the control of universities. It confers on each Universities the right to select or admit its own students decide what to teach and determine areas of research. Indeed, autonomy in tertiary education implies that each institution must be governed according to the law that establishes it. Every institution has its law, edicts or even decree which spells out the functions of the various organs, such as council senate, congregation, faculty, department and institute etc. Autonomy means the ability to take control of one’s own learning independently or in collaboration with others.

Concept of Administrative Autonomy

Administrative autonomy refers to public organization ability to determine their own preferences and to translate those preferences into authoritative actions. The concept describes a relationship between an organization and a set of actors outside the organization most importantly elected officials and executive politicians (Maggetti and Verhoest 2014). An institution without administrative autonomy has consequently been regarded as not being an institution in the real sense. An institution that has no administrative autonomy and academic freedom is therefore regarded as a contradiction in term’s. Bach (2020) opined that administrative autonomy can be defined as public organization’s ability to determine their own preference and to translate those preferences into authoritative activities. Administrative autonomy is a subnational administrative division or internal territory of a sovereign state that has a degree of autonomy-self-governance under the national government. Administrative autonomy will give the institutions the freedom to independently determine the cut off mark for admission, the number of students to be admitted, formulation of academic policies, the appointment and termination of university staff and heads and general control of standards and all other activities within the institution when it is fully attained in the universities. Ajayi (2006) posited that Administrative autonomy is intended to protect university education from unnecessary interference from government agents in the day-to-day running of the institutions   

Types of Administrative Autonomy

Nigerian tertiary education autonomy can be viewed from two dimensions, namely (institutional and individual autonomy):

 Institutional Autonomy: Institutional autonomy has been regarded as the corner stone of the tertiary education system. Anya (2002) defined institutional autonomy as the ability conferred on institutional arrangements of the state on each university to manage its affairs and consists usually of the corporate freedom of institutions to exercise its prerogatives in the areas of appointment of its staff and of its governing authorities pursuit of institutional goals as defined for itself under the rules of the law of the land; insulation of the institution in the management of its routine affairs from political, administrative, religious and other authorities. An institution without autonomy has consequently been regarded as not being an institution in the real sense. An institution that has no autonomy and academic freedom is therefore, regarded as a contradiction in terms. Fourie (2004) stated that institutional autonomy as referring to the relative freedom of the institution to conduct its affairs free from outside interference, whether from the state, donors, market or other stakeholders. She further stated that institutional autonomy has two dimensions:

Substantive Autonomy: This has to do with the power of the institution to determine its own goals and programmes.

Procedural Autonomy: It refers to the power of the tertiary institution to determine the means by which its goals and programmes will be pursued. 

Essential ingredients of institutional autonomy

According to Berdahl (2000) the essential ingredients of institutional autonomy to include:

Freedom to select staff and students, determine the conditions under which they remain in the university, freedom to determine curriculum contents and degree standards and freedom to allocate funds across different categories of expenditures

 Individual Autonomy: The confederation of Indian universities (2004) referred to individual autonomy as academic freedom has to do with members of the academic community. That is, scholars, teachers and students pursuing their scholarly activities in respects of ethical rules, international standards and without external pressure. Furthermore, they maintain that academic freedom engages the obligation of each individual member of the academic profession to excellence, innovation and advancing the frontiers of knowledge through research and diffusion of its results through teaching and publication. According to Fourie (2004), individual autonomy pertains to the who, the how and the whom of teaching and research by the individual academic. Berdahl (2000) opined that individual autonomy is the freedom of the individual scholar in his/her teaching and research to pursue truth whenever it seems to lead without fear of punishment or termination of employment or having offended some political, religious or social orthodoxy.

Historical overview of administrative autonomy in Nigerian tertiary education

Contention and related disputes on administrative university autonomy in Nigeria can be traced back to the 1970s when the sanctuary model of universities in Nigeria, which began with the establishment of the university college (later University of Ibadan), came under pressure by military dictatorship. A trade dispute between the Governing Council of Nigerian universities and the local branches of the National Association of University Teachers in 1973, on the review of conditions of service led to a strike by the university teachers. The demand for the review was necessitated by the high inflationary trend aftermath of the deplorable conditions left behind by the Nigerian civil war (1967-1970). The Federal Ministry of Education, however, stood against the efforts of the university Councils to secure improved pay and conditions, even after the Councils and the local teacher’s associations had and agreed on specific increase. This marked the beginning of the violation of the power of the council to negotiate and determine the condition of employment at the local level. It also became the point of contention in the university teacher’s strike of April 1973, especially as it became obvious that the reluctance of the Ministry was as a result of contention over the status of the top ministry officials vis-à-vis university professors. The government’s handling of the 1973 conflict was coercive. The then military ruler (Yakubu Gowon) in a national broadcast simply ordered the university teachers back to work or face dismissal and ejection from their official residence. The ministry officials were to have an upper hand when the erosion of university autonomy became formalised in 1974 when the university teacher’s conditions of service was brought under the civil service structure following the recommendations of the 1974 Udoji Commission Report on the Review of the public service (Adesina, 2019). The event signalled the beginning of the bid by the ruling class to capture the university terrain. The university teachers’ union in Nigeria now named the academic staff union of Nigerian universities (ASUNU) has always insisted on the sanctity of university autonomy and academic freedom.

1. Education has to do with the unfettered acquisition of knowledge and its use for the benefit of the society
2. Universities as schools of education should be committed to this twin freedom in relation to the search for and use of knowledge
3. To be faithful to this commitment, a university worth its duty, is bound to recognise the connections between knowledge and the numerable dimensions of the concrete realities of our time, by allowing a free interplay of different opinions in the pursuit of learning (ASUNU,1979). Three aspects of the violation of university autonomy are particularly noteworthy of the:
4. Violation of procedures for the appointment of university vice-chancellors
5. Erosion of the powers of Council as statutory employers and
6. Erosion of the powers of the senate as the supreme organ in academic matters.

The altering of the enabling laws of the universities in Nigeria especially in the erea of appointing Vice-Chancellors, has implication for other aspects of university autonomy, began in the Yakubu Gowon era. In 1975 when the Federal government began to take over regional universities, it promulgated Decree No. 23, which among others vested the power to appoint and remove vice-chancellors or the head of the Federal Military Government, in contrast with the joint committee of council and senate that was exercising the responsibility on behalf of the council in the universities. Thus far, the appointment of the vice-chancellor had remained the primary responsibility of the university community as provided for in the enabling laws. With the above, however, Governing Councils of the universities lost their power to appoint and remove vice-chancellors. Over time the position of the visitor became substantially altered from a largely ceremonial one to that in which empowered the visitor to intervene in the routine administration of the universities. As a result of this change vice-chancellors overtime became increasingly accountable to the head of Government (Federal or State) instead of the university community, as expressed in such institutions as the congregation, senate and council. That was the situation in Nigerian universities until 1992 when the question of university autonomy became one of the major issues in the industrial action embarked upon by the Academic staff union of Nigerian University, (ASUNU), which culminated in the promulgation of the university (miscellaneous) Act of 1993- that is now in dispute.Tertiary education is the education given after secondaryeducation, it include universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, monotechnics including those institutions offering correspondence courses. The Nigerian tertiary education encompasses universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. It plays a crucial role in the country’s development by providing advanced knowledge and skills necessary for economic growth. The structure of tertiary education in Nigeria are:

1. Universities: Nigeria has federal, state and private universities. Federal universities receive funding from the central government, while state universities are funded by state governments. Private universities are funded by private organizations and individuals.
2. Polytechnics: Polytechnics offer technical and vocational education, they provide National Diploma (ND) and Higher National Diploma (HND).
3. Colleges of Education: These institutions primarily focus on training teachers. They award the Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE).

The Goals of Tertiary Education are to:   

1. Contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training;  
2. Develop and calculate proper values for the survival of the individual and society;
3. Develop the intellectual capability of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and external environments;
4. Acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individual to be self-reliant and useful members of the society;
5. Promote and encourage scholarship and community service
6. Forge and cement national unity understanding and integration (FRN,2004, section 45) 

Okebukola (2015) Stated that tertiary education in Nigeria has been facing with the following challenges namely:

1. Funding: Insufficient funding is a persistent issue, leading to inadequate infrastructure, limited research opportunities, and poor staff remuneration.
2. Infrastructure: Many institutions face infrastructural deficits, including dilapidated buildings, outdated laboratories, and insufficient learning materials.
3. Quality of Education: The quality of education is often compromised by large class sizes, inadequate teaching staff, and a focus on theoretical rather than practical learning.
4. Research and Development: Limited funding and support for research activities hinder the advancement of knowledge and innovation.
5. Strikes and Unrest: Frequent strikes by academic and non-academic staff disrupt the academic calendar, affecting the quality of education.
6. Access and Equity: There are significant disparities in access to tertiary education, with rural and low-income students facing greater barriers. 

Autonomy in Tertiary Education in Nigeria 

Autonomy in tertiary education is essential to the advancement transmission and application of knowledge. Autonomy in tertiary education in Nigeria became almost an impossible request because of government ownership of the institutions in Nigeria. It has been incomprehensible for the government to handover the control of its investment. A major chunk of recurrent and capital fund for public institutions (Federal and state) is obtained from government. This has made government to be more inclined to the adage that says ‘who pays the piper dictates the tune’. The fact that bulks of the funds for institution operations comes from the government and the duty to be accountable for the public funds have made successive government to be reluctant and thus institute mechanisms to undermine the autonomy in tertiary education. Arikewuyo (2004) recounted how past and present governments have encroached on university autonomy as follows:

‘Staff and students’ unions were banned and un-banned at various times. The ASUNU and NANS were the most affected. Many vice-chancellors have been removed for not complying with directives from the government. A major General was even appointed as the sole Administrator in a first generation university. Many academics have been dismissed, retired and unjustly jailed for teaching what they were not employed to teach. Forty-nine academic staff of the university of Ilorin were dismissed for taking part in a nation-wide strike called by ASUU in 2001’. In the same vein, professor Jubril Aminu, the then minister of education, observed in his address to the Governing councils of Federal universities in 1986 that:

‘While we are absolutely committed to allowing the governing councils to carry on with their lawful business, we need to agree that university autonomy, such as we understand it, is no charter for privilege, and does not detract from government the responsibility of protecting public interest and in ensuring proper accountability’’. Aminu contended that academic freedom and university autonomy should not be the excuse for ‘maladministration’ and ‘outright lawlessness’.

Problems of Autonomy

According to Sanda (2002) the problems confronting university in Nigeria, particularly from the external perspective are as follows:

 Centralisation of the University system: The thought of a centralised system was not paramount at the inception of the university system in Nigeria. The universities then existed as entities conducting their affairs independently. The growth of the university system over time necessitated the establishment of National Universities Commission (NUC) in 1962 to play an advisory role and act as a buffer between Federal Government and the Universities and not to control the later. The commission was saddle with the responsibility of receiving and disbursing subventions to universities. NUC has constituted itself into an external agency infringing on the individual university’s autonomy to chart its courses in such areas as:

• Training of academic personnel
• Curriculum determination
• Creation of academic programme
• Programme standardization

 Centralisation of Admission: The idea of a centralised board engaging in the conduct of matriculation examination and placement of qualified candidates into Nigerian established institution was never thought of when the early institutions were established. At that time each institution conducted its entrance examinations and selected qualified candidates. This situation prevailed until when the Joint and Matriculation Board was established to conduct matriculation examinations. JAMB has trespassed into the individual autonomy of tertiary institution to select their students. The common malaise associated with this body in relation to tertiary education is the growing trend in examination malpractices, and creating serious selection credibility problem. It is a common sight in our tertiary institutions to see students with high JAMB score, but performing poorly academically. This situation has compelled several universities into setting aptitude tests to confirm the credibility of the students.

Council Dominance: The domination of university council by government-appointed officials to the detriment of minority representation of university community members serve as another avenue of autonomy breach in Nigerian universities. Government’s own position regarding its dominance of the Councils is that, since the government is the primary source of fund for the system, it must also be in control through government’s agents to ensure accountability in such areas as financial and physical resources, staff recruitment, student admission and programme quality.                   

Strategies to Ensure Ideal Tertiary Education Autonomy

Sanda (2002) stated that there should be an increase in the number of university community members in the Council as a sustainable way of protecting the institutional autonomy. It must be free from the shackles of external interference which is currently impeding growth.

The interfering role of the NUC should be reviewed, while allowing the Commission to function in its original advisory capacity. The current reform in the tertiary education sector should address the problem of centralised admissions through JAMB, where candidates now write JAMB examination and later subjected candidates to another examination by the various universities. The right to admit should rest with the institutions.                  

Conclusion

Autonomy in tertiary education relates to the protection of the institutions from interference by government officials in day-to-day running of the institutions especially on the issues related to the selection of students, the appointment and removal of the academic staff, including the vice-chancellors etc. the determination of contents of tertiary education and the control of standards. Autonomy also gives learners the confidence to take control of their own learning and contribute positively towards organizational development.                           

Suggestions

As the study found out that administrative autonomy is highly imperative to the quality and administration of higher education. Government at all levels should allow heads of tertiary institutions to manage and run their schools without interfering in the affairs of the school in terms of employment of staff, admission of students and financial expenditure of the school. Adequate capital should be provided, equipment’s and building should also be enough, education should be given the highest budgetary vote especially where it incorporates research and development and education should also get a bigger share of government expenditure. When administrative autonomy is fully attained in universities, it will give the institutions the freedom to independently determine the number of students to be admitted, the cut off mark for admission, the appointment and termination of University staff and heads, formulation of academic policies and general.                                       

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Abstract

This paper examines the autonomy of Nigerian tertiary education: an imperative for social justice delivery.  The university autonomy which means freedom granted each university to conduct its own affairs and policies without undue interference is a fundamental Right of the institution. This autonomy refers to organizational, financial, staffing, and academic independence of universities.  Academic freedom means the liberty of the members of academic community to carry out their fundamental human rights in pursuit of development and transmission of knowledge through research, study, documentation, production, teaching, lecturing and writing.  While the academic freedom applies to persons teaching, studying, researching and working in an institution of higher education, university autonomy applies to the institutions of higher learning.  Social justice is concerned with fundamental human rights and addresses those inherent in autonomy of the institutions and academic freedom of members of academic community.  The efforts made by academic communities in pursuit of social justice and demand for those fundamental rights have, more often than not, resulted in confrontation with government and one of the major reasons for series of industrial actions by Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU).  The realization of university autonomy and academic freedom, is as it were, social justice delivered. The paper addresses these issues in the sub-headings of Concept of Autonomy, Concept of Social Justice, the impact of Social Justice on the demand for university autonomy and academic freedom.

Introduction

The autonomy of Nigerian Tertiary Education has always been debated in our institutions of higher learning. Various governments have enacted laws as legal documents for autonomy of Nigerian universities.  The National Policy on Education (FRN 2014:37) considers the issues of academic freedom and autonomy as crucial for academic survival when it declares that “the internal organization and administration of each university will be left to the university.”  This is only on paper as the implementation of these laws and policies has always been an age-long problem.  This has affected the quality of our university education system that has been engulfed by incessant industrial actions and impeded the development that it is supposed to bring about in the society.

Concept of Autonomy

Etymologically the word autonomy is derived from two Greek words auto’s – self and nomos – govern, rule.  When taken together would mean to govern oneself or self rule.  It refers to the ability of an individual to act and make decisions without interference or being controlled by anyone else.  Contextually, it is the right of an institution of learning to be free of interference by Government or any other external authority in its operations and affairs. For Ojo (1990) autonomy is the legal freedom afforded to each university to conduct its own affairs and policies without undue interference from outside bodies, persons, or most importantly, from government that chooses to support it.

The European University Association (EUA) outlined four dimensions of university autonomy as organizational, financial, staffing, and academic.

• Organizational covers structures and institutional governance – that is the ability to establish structures and governing bodies, university leadership and is accountable to whom.
• Staffing deals with matters concerning recruitment of staff, responsibility for terms of employment.
• Financial matters are concerned with acquiring and allocating funding, charging tuition fees, sourcing for funds from different areas, acquiring landed properties and buildings as investment and for commercial purposes and reporting procedures as accountability tools.
• Staffing would cover the capacity to recruit staff, fix salaries and issues relating to employment contracts such as civil servant status.
• Academic matters – The capacity to define the profile, to introduce or terminate degree programmes, define the structure and content of degree programmes, quality assurance of programmes, the extent of control over student admissions. (EUA’s Lisbon declaration (2007).

The European Universities Association simply defines autonomy as organizational, financial, staffing and academic independence of universities.  From the foregoing, university autonomy, viewed as academic freedom, confers on the institution of higher learning, a fundamental right since it is in eyes of the law a juridical person and a denial of this right will tantamount to gross injustice.

In Nigeria, according to Okorosaye – Orubite (2022), university autonomy refers to the right of institution, not the individual professional, to govern itself, this is in line with Asbby Commission Report.  This Commission (FME, 1960:31) recommends that:

A university has to be insulated from the hot and cold winds of politics.  Responsibility for its management must be vested in an autonomous council.  The council must include representatives of the public, but these representatives must attend as individuals and not as agents for some sectional interest or party line.

The emphasis is on being insulated from political or sectional interest hence Fernando, Hartley, Norwak and Swinalhart (1990) in Okorosaye-Orubite (2022) opined that the independence of institutions of higher education from the state and all other forces of society, to make decisions regarding its internal government, finance, administration, and to establish its policies of education, research, extension work and other related activities.

Another concept of academic freedom is the unhindered involvement of professors, lecturers and students in academic activities such as research and other creative processes that will lead to innovative discoveries which will bring about the development of the society.  It must be noted that academic freedom or university autonomy does not exempt any member of the university community from the laws of the land. Ojo quoted Nocol in Okorosaye-Orubite (2022:150) that

“academic freedom cannot be regarded as implying exemption from the laws of the land as far as libel, slander, keeping of the peace and sedition are concerned. But it added that a wise government will overlook the apparent transgressions of scholars if it is obvious that their intent is objectively critical and not malicious subversive”

While Ross (1977) defines university autonomy as the freedom of the institution to function without undue control or influence by external forces or agencies. Prof Anya’s Commission (1979) defines academic freedom as the pursuit of academic truth in the institution by way of equity and even polemical controversy, the freedom of the teacher/student to investigate and discuss the problem of the subject and express his conclusions in publications and lectures, the freedom of the student to learn within his field of study I an atmosphere free from any kind of coercion.  Institutional autonomy according to Obanya in Akinwumi and Olaniyan (2001) asserts that institutional autonomy on the other hand is necessary to create situation in which the managers of universities are answerable to their constituents (i.e. the academic community).  It thus becomes a way of strengthening democratic management within educational institution and ensuring each institution gives free rein to the creativity of its staff and students.  Akinwumi & Olaniyan remarked that there is a new policy which provides for freedom of universities to govern themselves, appoint key officers, determine the condition of service of their staff, control their student admissions and academic curricula. The universities equally control their finance and generally regulate themselves as independent entities without undue interference from the Federal Government and its agencies.

The autonomy of institutions of higher learning otherwise known as academic freedom.  The Lima Declaration in Okorosaye-Orubite (2022) defines ‘academic freedom’ as the freedom of members of the academic community, individually or collectively, in the pursuit, development and transmission of knowledge, through research, study, documentation, production, creation, teaching, lecturing and writing. According to Fernado, Hartley, Nowaka and Swinehart in Okorosaye-Orubite (2022:150) “academic community refers to all persons teaching, studying, researching and working in an institution of higher education.” Academic freedom is a fundamental right with inherent importance for the proper functioning in the institutions of higher education.  This fundamental right is derived from the right to education and relates to the right of thought, opinion and expression.

In establishing the relationship between two concepts of academic freedom and autonomy, Okafor in Orubite (2022) states that when academic freedom exists, autonomy automatically follows.  But autonomy cannot exist without academic freedom in the modern sense” since the former allows for freedom to decide who, what and how to teach or what research to undertake.  The later applies to members of academic community. In other words, autonomy is the institutional form of academic freedom, and a necessary precondition to guarantee the proper fulfillment of the functions with which higher educational institutions are entrust, academic freedom guarantees the fundamental right to members of academic community individually and collectively.  It applies to human persons.

Concept of Social Justice

The concept of social Justice dates back to Ancient Greece as a process toward a fair and just society. Social justice came to be understood the way it is today as a result of industrial revolution when the level of social inequalities between rich and poor was too wide. Justice is derived from the latin iustitia meaning righteousness, equity, fairness.  Rawls (1971) proposed a theory of Justice as fairness, a way of allowing the concepts of freedom and justice to co-exist which traditionally were understood to be incompatible. Rawls understood that justice as fairness is embodied by a society where free citizens have basic rights and freedom and interact cooperatively for the benefit of all.

In practice, social justice was concerned with economic reforms, but later it was embedded in national and international law and now the steps toward social justice have taken a more legislative shape.  This is due to the fact that human rights are one of the most powerful tools in the pursuit of social justice.  When human rights are recognized in law, it enables citizens to hold governments accountable if these human rights are violated.  In the contemporary movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking barriers for social mobility.  Institutions and organized groups are protected economically and socially.  Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits of cooperation.  This equally makes available appropriate channels in society for citizens to express their views on political matters and participate in the activities of government for the interest of the society.  This participation implies the need for the tools and political will to incorporate these views into policy making to ensure fair, universal representation.

Autonomy of Tertiary Education and Social Justice

The demand for autonomy of tertiary education is a demand for social justice.  As discussed above, university autonomy refers to freedom granted each university to manage its internal affairs without undue interference from outside bodies, persons and most importantly the government.  This means that demand for university autonomy is demand for freedom of opinion and expression, the right to work and education and these are fundamental human rights.  Everyone is entitled to these rights without discrimination.  It is obligation on the government by international human rights law to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individual or groups.  Social justice is all about fairness as it manifests in society.  Therefore, social justice ensures human rights.

As discussed above that university autonomy is a fundamental right and social justice is all about fundamental right, therefore what is being demanded in university autonomy is social justice. The connection between social justice and autonomy emanates from the common interest in human rights.  Autonomy is concerned with the right of the institution to govern itself, conduct its own affairs and policies without undue interference as it is the case with academic freedom.  That is equally concerned with the fundamental right of the individual members, so it is with social justice which upholds the fundamental human rights of all in the society.

This connection between social justice and human rights embedded in autonomy has strengthened over the years to the point where many use social justice and human rights interchangeably. Social justice addresses the human rights that university autonomy is concerned with.  This connection is essential because human rights are recognized globally.  When activists fight for social justice, they lean on the connection with human rights to hold governments, corporations, and individuals accountable.  Social justice is built on these four pillars: Human rights, Access, Participation and Equity and these are equally the concerns in the agitations for the autonomy of tertiary education.

Nigerian Experience

Akinwumi and Olaniyan (2001) rightly observed that autonomy of university is an age-long debate especially in Nigeria higher institutions of learning.  There it was noted that the degree of autonomy can also be dependent on the type of regime of government of the day and institutions concerned.  The policy document for higher education in Nigeria never divorced autonomy and academic freedom.  As early as September 1960, Nigeria had opted for autonomy of tertiary education.  This was evident in the report of Asbby Commission on Post School Certificate and higher education in Nigeria.  The Commission recommended that: A university has to be insulated from the hot and cold winds of politics.  Responsibility for its management must be vested in an autonomous council.  The council must include representatives of the public, but these representatives must attend as individuals and not as agents for some sectional interest or party line.

Ojo in Okorosaye-Orubite (2022) observed that the first sign university autonomy and academic freedom was being eroded surfaced at the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) in 1964.  Before then, Nigerian Universities have relative autonomy and freedom.  The situation was a result of the announcement of the Pro-Chancellor and Acting Vice-Chancellor that the university is to support the government of the day, to which the university looked up for sustenance and that is the credo of the university.  The statement added that any member of the staff who disagreed with the new policy shall resign.  The result of this speech was the dismissal of Prof. Victor Oyenuga, the Dean, Faculty of Agriculture which led to loss of three members of the academic staff who resigned their appointment in protest over the dismissal of their colleague.  This was a clear sign of anti-intellectualism (Okorosaye-Oribite, 2022).

The same happened in University of Nigeria Nsukka this year 1964 where Prof Lindsay appointment was terminated over his exercise of academic freedom through his publication “University of Nigeria – Lindsay Correspondence”. In the said publication, Prof Lindsay criticized the admission of students to study Archeology when the university was not prepared. Nigeria had enacted laws that promote autonomy of tertiary education but the implementation has been the problem. The frequent infringement on the fundamental right of the tertiary education has grossly obstructed the progress.

There was huge expectation with inauguration of democratically elected government on 29^th May 1999 that academic freedom and university autonomy will thrive. However the facts proved to the contrary.  It took series of industrial actions for FGN to accept to negotiate with Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) on serious matters related to the autonomy of institutions of higher learning otherwise known as academic freedom, problem of funding universities, conditions of service, academic freedom and autonomy.  The agreement was reached between FGN and ASUU and properly signed, but FGN refused to implement.  It took another six months long strike that led to the lost of a whole academic session in some universities before the FGN very reluctantly implemented partially some key aspects of the agreement.   Within this period of long strike, the FGN representative or in the person of the president himself never bordered.  Instead he said he was not worried because he did not know why ASSU was on strike and that they will burn out themselves because parents will send their children to private universities. In the area of university autonomy and academic freedom, president Obasanjo presumed constitutionally by submitting a bill to National Assembly known as Autonomy Bill in 2003.  This was discovered to be worse than the one it seeks to repeal.  This was rejected by ASSU and prayed the National Assembly to assent to their own proposal.

Conclusion

University autonomy and academic freedom is sine qua non for the development of the educational sector. Education is expected to address critical issues like dignity of labour, quality leadership, committed followership, industrial harmony, political stability, religious tolerance and national unity that can enhance development in Nigeria.  It has to make reasonable marks in leading Nigeria to her scientific and technological realities.  Our education should produce new and useful techniques in agriculture, and in the management of our resources.  These can only be achieved when there is industrial harmony between the institutions of higher learning and government.  Lack of implementation of education policies leading to strike actions that disrupt academic activities are inimical to the desired development that education should bring about.  The need for academic freedom that enables the members of university community to be productive and resourceful cannot be over emphasized because these are the life wire of education system.  It is important to note that no education, no matter how well designed, or how wonderful the visions are, can be attained without well equipped visionary and committed teachers. The National Policy on Education 2014 clearly states that no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to facilitate the autonomy and the realization of social justice in Nigeria tertiary education.

• Government should adequately fund education with tax payers’ money and revenue accruing from the nation’s natural endowment.
• The autonomy granted to tertiary institutions should be holistic. The statutory powers of Governing council for appointment, promotion and discipline of all categories of staff should include that of vice-chancellor at the university senate. 
• The Senate should be given the capacity to control the academic programmes, quality assurance of programmes and management of finance.
• The institution should control admissions of students, fix fees, make resource yielding investments and award contracts.

References

Akinwumi, J. A. & Olaniyan, D. (2001). Analysis_of_University_autonomy_in_Nigeria. African Journal of Management (AEM). 9(2), 117-129. https://www.academia.edu/43745265/

Assby, E. (1996). Universities: British, India, African: A study in the ecology of higher education. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National policy on education. Lagos NERDC Press.

Ojo, D. (1990). Law and University administration in Nigeria. Lagos: Malthouse Press Ltd.

Okorosaye-Orubite, A. K. (2022). Education and development in Nigeria. PortHarcourt. P, African Press.

Rawla, J. (1971). Theory of justice. London, England: Belknap Press

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The paper assessed the importance of women’s right to education and implications for national growth and development. The study adopted qualitative methodology adopted that consists of book base analysis. Promoting educational right of both sexes is a major concern of the writers especially as it affects the female gender. Women are discriminated against in Nigeria. However, the tide is changing. Many Nigerians have access to education and the re-orientation of Nigerians (with respect to women’s rights) has been improving. The paper highlighted that the UN Charter recognized the principle of human rights and fundamental freedoms should be enjoyed by everyone ‘without distinction. Since then, international human rights instruments have repeatedly affirmed that women and men must equally enjoy the human rights they enumerate, without discrimination on the ground of sex. The paper contends that notwithstanding women’s education is critical to the country’s entire growth and development. It’s similar to an effective medicine that may know how to cure a patient and recover their health. A well-educated woman is capable of managing both her personal and professional lives. The paper concludes that states have an obligation to take deliberate, concrete, and targeted steps, according to maximum available resources, to move expeditiously and effectively towards the full realisation of the women’s educational right in Nigeria. Based on conclusion, it was recommended that: there should be availability of adequate infrastructure; technological accessibility for those unable to attend school, such as through information and communication technologies in distance and open learning settings; and economic accessibility, which means education, should be free from pre-school to the secondary level and progressively free at the tertiary level.

Key words: women’s right, national growth, development, education and law

Introduction

The 20th century was characterized by the women’s movement, which brought women to the forefront in a variety of societal arenas. As women won the right to vote, achieved reproductive freedom through birth control and legalized abortion, and gained access to education and employment around the, Western culture was forced to examine its long-held views about women and the roles they play in the society. Owomoyela¹, promoting educational right of both sexes is a major concern of the writer especially as it affects the female gender. Traditionally, women are marginalized and enjoy disproportionate educational opportunities in Nigeria. However, the tide is changing, but a lot still need to be done. Many Nigerians have access to education and the orientation of Nigerians (with respect to women’s rights) has been improving. With the return to democratic rule in Nigeria in 1999, many laws have been promulgated in Nigeria to improve the status of women in the country.

Women around the world regularly suffer violations of their human rights throughout their lives, and realizing women’s human rights has not always been a priority to many governments. The United Nations has a long history of addressing women’s human rights and much progress has been made in securing women’s rights across the world in recent decades. Owomoyela² observed that achieving equality between women and men requires a comprehensive understanding of the ways in which women experience discrimination and are denied equality so as to develop appropriate strategies to eliminate such discrimination in Nigerian education. Attaining equality between women and men and eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in Nigerian education are fundamental human rights and United Nations values. However, Clark² stated that important gaps remain and women’s realities are constantly changing, with new manifestations of discrimination against them regularly emerging most especially in Northern part of Nigeria. Some groups of women face additional forms of discrimination based on their age, ethnicity, nationality, religion, health status, marital status, education, physical deformity, and socioeconomic status, among other grounds. These intersecting forms of discrimination must be taken into account when developing measures and responses to combat discrimination against women in tertiary education.

Some men generally believed women are created to add to their fame and riches. That is to say, the number of women and children you have as a man is what adds to the numbers of riches you have as a man. It also enhances man’s social status in the community. To this end, women were often limited to being second class citizens. They were often not allowed to hold property or land or they could only do so upon fulfilling certain conditions that men were not subject to, they were not allowed to hold chieftaincy titles or political offices and participate in others aspect of life. This had become an issue over the years which led to the Beinjin Summit for women (1995)³, It also led to playwrights like Irene Salami, Tracie Utoh, Tess Nwene and the likes of others who took it upon themselves to agitate for women emancipation through playwriting.

What is right?

Rights are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. Rights are entitlements to perform certain actions, or not to be in certain states; or entitlements that others perform certain actions or be in certain states. Rights are fundamental to any civilization and the history of social conflicts is often bound up with attempts both to define and to redefine them. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy⁴, “rights structure the form of governments, the content of laws, and the shape of morality as it is currently perceived. Rights dominate modern understandings of what actions are permissible and which institutions are just. To accept a set of rights is to approve a distribution of freedom and authority, and so to endorse a certain view of what may, must, and must not be done.

In 1945, the United Nations Charter⁵ recognized the principle that human rights and fundamental
freedoms should be enjoyed by everyone ‘without distinction as to sex’. Since then,
international human rights’ instruments have repeatedly affirmed that women and men
must equally enjoy the human rights they enumerate, without discrimination on the
ground of sex. The new era of universal human rights promised women, for the first time
in international law, the full recognition of their humanity, marking a decisive break with
the long standing legal representation of women as lacking full legal and civil capacity.

One way to get an idea of the multiple understandings and senses of the term is to consider different ways it is used. Many diverse things are claimed as rights:

A right to life, a right to choose; a right to vote, to work, to strike; a right to one phone call, to dissolve parliament, to operate a forklift, to asylum, to equal treatment before the law, to feel proud of what one has done; a right to exist, to sentence an offender to death, to launch a nuclear first strike, to carry a concealed weapon, to a distinct genetic identity; a right to believe one’s own eyes, to pronounce the couple husband and wife, to be left alone, to go to hell in one’s own way⁶.

There are likewise diverse possible ways to categorize rights, such as:

Who is alleged to have the right: Children’s rights, animal rights, workers’ rights, states’ rights, the rights of peoples? What actions or states or objects the asserted right pertains to: Rights of free expression, to pass judgment; rights of privacy, to remain silent; property rights, bodily rights. Why the right holder (allegedly) has the right: Moral rights spring from moral reasons, legal rights derive from the laws of the society, customary rights are aspects of local customs. How the asserted right can be affected by the right holder’s actions: The inalienable right to life, the forfeitable right to liberty, and the waivable right that a promise be kept⁷.

Having cited the definition of right by different authours, the writer will now delve into what Women Right and the Law in Nigeria say to fully understand what Nigerian women are really fighting for.

Women’s Right and the Law in Nigeria

Law as an instrument of change is definitely an indispensable weapon in the hands of legislators
and policy makers in Nigeria. Nigeria’s approach towards women’s rights has very often been in line with international law. The international community has recognised the equal right to quality education of everyone and committed to achieving gender equality in all fields, including education, through their acceptance of international human rights law. This means that states have legal obligations to remove all discriminatory barriers, whether they exist in law or in everyday life, and to undertake positive measures to bring about equality, including access within, and through education.

Provisions relating to gender equality in education can be found in both general and specific international treaties, as well as treaties concluded in most regions of the world. Here are some of the most significant ones:

1. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW): CEDAW is often referred to as the international bill of rights for women. It sets out legally binding obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in all areas of life.
2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action: Adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995. This document outlines a comprehensive roadmap for achieving gender equality and women’s empowerment.
3. Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Although not specific to women, it asserts the fundamental rights and freedoms that apply to all individuals, regardless of gender.
4. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325: This resolution addresses the impact of armed conflict on women and recognizes the critical role women play in peace and security efforts.
5. The Convention on the Rights of the Child: While not exclusively focused on women, this convention includes provisions to protect the rights of girls and women, particularly in the context of child marriage, child labour, and access to education.
6. Istanbul Convention (Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women and Domestic Violence): This treaty focuses on preventing and combating violence against women, including domestic violence, and provides a framework for legal and policy measures to address such violence.
7. Optional Protocol to CEDAW: This protocol allows individuals or groups to file complaints with the CEDAW Committee if they believe their rights under CEDAW have been violated.
8. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: While not exclusively focused on women, this convention recognizes the intersectionality of gender and disability rights, emphasizing the need to protect the rights of women and girls with disabilities.
9. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: These covenants include provisions related to non-discrimination and the protection of human rights, which are applicable to women.
10. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights: This regional human rights instrument for Africa includes provisions related to women’s rights and gender equality.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979, CEDAW)⁸ focuses exclusively on women’s rights. It interprets and applies the right to education in a way that considers the specific needs and circumstances of women and girls. Article 10 of CEDAW is the most comprehensive provision on women and girls’ right to education in international law. It sets forth the normative content in relation to the elimination of discrimination against women and ensuring equal rights with men in the field of education, including:

• the same conditions for access to studies and diplomas at all educational levels, in both  urban and rural areas
• the same quality of education
• the elimination of any stereotyped concept of the roles of men and women
• the same opportunities to benefit from scholarships and other study grants
• the same access to programmes of continuing education, including literacy programmes, particularly those aimed at reducing the gender gap in education
• the reduction of female student drop-out rates and programmes for women and girls who have left school prematurely
• the same opportunity to participate in sports and physical education
• access to educational information on health, including advice on family planning⁹

A number of other CEDAW¹⁰ provisions are also relevant to gender equality in education.

Article 1 defines discrimination against women as:

any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.

Article¹¹ 2 sets out the legal and policy measures states should undertake to eliminate discrimination against women and therefore applies to the totality of rights found in CEDAW. This includes legal and policy measures related to the implementation of the right to education on a non-discriminatory basis.

In line with international law and modern practice, the Nigerian government has introduced
some reforms to improve in an attempt to create a more equitable society Nigerian woman. Some of these reforms included the signing and ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)¹², adoption of a National Gender Policy, the enactment of the Child Rights Act 2003 (this law domesticated the Convention of the Rights of the Child in Nigeria), the enactment of the Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Law Enforcement and Administration Act 2003¹³ and establishment of Women Development Centres in all the states in Nigeria amongst. Thus, the recent enactment of the Violence against Persons (Prohibition) Act (VAPPA) also shows a conscious legislative move to advance gender equality. This research aligns with the views of Justice Musdapher¹⁴ which states thus: the challenges of societal growth, demands and dynamisms are tackled through the instrumentality of the law. In fact, law does not only change with societal changes, but actually initiates the changes in society.

Hence, law plays an indispensable role as a veritable tool for social engineering. The constant evolution of the laws to adequately and equitably ensure the protection of the rights of women as well as the increasing frequency with which the Court continues to recognize and protect the rights of women is a testament to that.

Women Right and Education in Nigeria

Today, more women than ever have access to education. However, despite this progress, many women continue to face multiple barriers based on gender and its intersections with other factors, such as age, ethnicity, poverty, and disability, in the equal enjoyment of the right to quality education. This includes barriers, at all levels, to access quality education and within education systems, institutions, and classrooms, such as, amongst others:

• harmful gender stereotypes and wrongful gender stereotyping
• child marriage and early and unintended pregnancy
• gender-based violence against women and girls
• lack of inclusive and quality learning environments and inadequate and unsafe education infrastructure, including sanitation
• poverty

Insecurity and the particular threat that schools face are also factors as schools are often considered as soft targets. The victims of these attacks are often subjected to emotional trauma such as anxiety, shock, anger or depression. All these may either take the child out of school or lead to disruption of the victims academic experiences.

To achieve gender equality and empower women, the Nigerian government has implemented various initiatives aimed at promoting female education. Some of which are:

1. Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme: The UBE programme, established in 1999, is a flagship initiative that provides free and compulsory basic education for every Nigerian child aged 6 to 15 years. It plays a crucial role in enhancing female education access and quality, especially in underserved areas. The problems with the programme were how effective was the program? Has Basic Education ever been free in Nigeria? Is the programme still on or we have replaced it with many other programmes due to lack of continuity?
2. National Policy on Education: The National Policy on Education incorporates gender-sensitive provisions to address gender disparities in access to education. It promotes equal opportunities for both boys and girls and emphasizes the importance of eradicating gender bias in curricula and teaching materials. As good as the policy is on paper, are there adequate provisions for the rightful implementation? The document has been due for another review since 2018 since it was last reviewed in 2013, are there provisions in place for such review.
3. Girl-Child Education Initiatives: The Federal Government and some states in Nigeria have launched specific girl-child education initiatives to bridge gender disparities. These programs are still on going and it provide financial support, scholarships, and mentorship opportunities to girls, promoting and encouraging their participation in education.
4. National Gender policy. The National Gender Policy is particularly modelled to tackle gender inequality. The 2021 – 2026 built on the shortcomings of its predecessor and adopts the gender mainstreaming strategy to draw attention to how women, men, girls, and boys are influenced and affected by policy decisions and programme executions and the need for a two-pronged approached to redressing gender inequalities. Gender mainstreaming is a globally recognized strategy for successfully advancing gender equality and equity in society.

The Nigerian government’s efforts to promote female education are commendable, and progress has been made in advancing gender equality in education. However, there is still work to be done to ensure that all Nigerian girls have equal access to quality education, empowering them to become active participants in the nation’s development. The execution of some of those policies have fallen short of expectation. Continuing to address cultural and economic barriers and investing in girls’ education will be key in the journey towards gender equality in education in Nigeria.

Importance of Promoting Women’s Educational Right in Nigerian Education for Growth and National Development

Promoting women’s educational rights in Nigeria is a crucial endeavour that holds immense significance for the nation’s growth and development. In a country with a diverse cultural landscape and varying socio-economic conditions, ensuring that women have equal access to education is not just a matter of justice; it is fundamental to unlocking the country’s full potential.

Education is a fundamental right for everyone, and what this means is that women should be included in this group. Nigeria cannot afford not to educate all her girl child, as this will result in poor family health and survival in the home front which will translate to poor economic development for the nation. Every woman, whether rich, poor, young, elderly, married, single, widowed or of any other social position, has the right to an education. Education is a fundamental right, not a privilege and this will bring an all round development for the nation. Promoting women’s educational rights is an essential component of Nigeria’s development agenda. It not only empowers women individually but also benefits the nation as a whole by fostering economic growth, reducing poverty, and advancing gender equality. By ensuring equal access to quality education for women and girls, Nigeria can harness its demographic potentials and drive forward as a more inclusive and prosperous nation.

From the position so far illustrated, it is not in doubt that women’s right is important in Nigeria in other to excel. Among such importance are:

Economic Empowerment: Education equips women with the knowledge and skills needed to participate in the labour market effectively. As educated women join the workforce, they contribute to economic growth and become less vulnerable to poverty. This not only benefits them individually, but also strengthens the nation’s economy.

Healthier Families: Educated women tend to have healthier families. They are more knowledgeable about nutrition, healthcare, and family planning, resulting in better child and maternal health. This leads to lower infant mortality rates and healthier children, which, in turn, enhances the well-being of the entire society.

Reduced Poverty: Education is a powerful tool for breaking the cycle of poverty. When women have access to education, they can engage in income-generating activities and reduce their vulnerability to economic hardship. As a result, they can contribute to poverty reduction at the household and community levels.

Enhanced Gender Equality: Promoting women’s educational rights is a critical step towards achieving gender equality. Educated women are more likely to challenge gender stereotypes and advocate for their rights. This empowerment leads to the adoption of more inclusive policies and practices, benefiting the entire society.

Political Participation: Educated women are more likely to participate in political processes. Their inclusion in decision-making and governance can lead to more representative and effective policies that address the diverse needs of the population.

Cultural Transformation: Education challenges and transforms traditional cultural norms that perpetuate harmful practices, such as early marriage and gender discrimination. Educated women are empowered to make informed choices and question discriminatory practices, contributing to cultural transformation.

Human Capital Development: The knowledge and skills acquired through education make women valuable contributors to human capital development. Their active participation in the workforce enhances the nation’s overall capacity for innovation, growth, and development.

In addition, United National Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)²¹, maintained that educating women will involve:

• Gaining knowledge and awareness of gender relations, as well as the ways in which they may be changed.
• Gaining a sense of self-worth, faith in one’s ability to effect desired changes, and the ability to direct one’s own life.
• Having the ability to make decisions that give you negotiating power.
• Improving one’s abilities to organize and influence social change to achieve a more just social and economic order on a national and worldwide scale.

In light of this enlightenment in women’s educational right, the writers are of the opinion that educating women will make Nigeria to be seen as the world’s emerging superpower.

Conclusion

This topic is a very sensitive one and it reveals that the women’s right in Nigeria requires knowledge of law to be able to achieve maximally. This work dealt extensively with the analysis of key positions in the laws about equal right of women’s educational opportunity, since it’s stated that equality between women and men and eliminating all forms of discrimination against women in Nigerian education are fundamental human rights and United Nations values. Women around the world nevertheless regularly suffer violations of their human rights throughout their lives, and realizing women’s human rights has not always been a priority describing the reasons for being concerned about equality in this arena and then surveyed debates about the value and distribution of such opportunities. Rights through educationdefine ways in which schooling shapes rights and gender equality in aspects of life outside the sphere of education. The absence of this right is particularly evident when education, which should be transformational, fails to significantly advance the position of women in the social, cultural, political and economic fields thereby denying their full enjoyment of rights in these arenas.

Recommendations

From the work done, it is recommend as follows;

1. States have an obligation to take deliberate, concrete, and targeted steps, according to maximum available resources, to move expeditiously and effectively towards the full realisation of the women’s right to education;
2. Efforts should be made towards identifying and removing all barriers such as cultural biases, early marriage or economic constraints that could hinder the education of women;
3. Accessibility which requires availability of adequate infrastructure; technological accessibility for those unable to attend school, such as through information and communication technologies in distance and open learning settings; and economic accessibility, which means education should be free from pre-school to the secondary level and progressively free at the tertiary level;
4. The provision of gender sensitive curriculum is also recommended. This curriculum will teach inclusiveness and promote gender equality;
5. Another important recommendation is that Government and Proprietors should provide safe schools, where the girl child or women can learn without fear of kidnapping or harassment. There should be measures against gender based violence;
6. Policymakers should target interventions to areas that will be most impactful (for example. growing recognition of the importance of women education);
7. Advocacy and Awareness: There is still much to be done in terms of promoting advocacy campaigns to emphasize the value of women’s education and gender equality through the use of female role models and mentorship programmes to guide the girl child.

References

1. Oyekan Owomoyela, The Columbia Guide to West African Literature in English Since 1945, Columbia University Press, 2013, p. 129.
2. Bailey B, ‘Nigeria ranks worst in Women Participation in politics in Africa’ Business day (Nigeria, 18 March 2018) < https://www.businessdayonline.com/news/article/nigeria-ranks-worst-women-participation-politics-africa/ > accessed 17 August 2023
3. Alexander, Larry A. “Fair Equality of Opportunity: John Rawls’ (Best) Forgotten Principle”,  1985, Philosophy Research Archives, 11: 197–208.
4. Anderson, Elizabeth S.“What Is the Point of Equality?”, 1999. Ethics, 109(2): 287–337.
5. “Fair Opportunity in Education: A Democratic Equality Perspective”, Ethics, 117(4): 595–622.
6. Arneson, Richard J. “Against Rawlsian Equality of Opportunity”, 1999. Philosophical Studies, 93(1): 77–112.
7. Arneson, Richard and Ian Shapiro, “Democratic Autonomy and Religious Liberty: A Critique of Wisconsin v. Yoder”, in Political Order (Nomos 38), 1996. Ian Shapiro and Russell Hardin (eds.), New York: New York University Press, pp. 365–411.
8. “Can Justice as Fairness Accommodate the Disabled?”, 2001. Social Theory and Practice, 27(4): 537–560.
9. Brighouse, Harry and Adam Swift, “Educational Equality Versus Educational Adequacy: A Critique of Anderson and Satz”, 2009. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 26(2): 117–128.
10. Nwankwo O, ‘Effectiveness of Legislation Enacted to Address Violence against Women in Nigeria’ (30 May 2008) <http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/egm/vaw_legislation_2008. accessed 11 June 2023
11. John Pepper Clark”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2012. Web. 7 July 2012.
12. African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Enforcement and Ratification) Act 1983 (Formerly Cap 10 LFN 1990 now Cap A9, LFN 2004 (African Charter Act). Violence against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015
13. Galston, William. “Civic Education in the Liberal State”, in Nancy Rosenblum (ed.), Liberalism and the Moral Life, 1989. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, pp. 89–102.
14. Guinier, Lani. The Tyranny of the Meritocracy: Democratizing Higher Education in America, 2016.  Boston: Beacon Press.
15. Aigbovo O and Ewere A ‘Adjudicating Women’s Rights in Nigeria: Has the Tide Finally Turned?. 2015. 5 (2) African Journal of Law and Criminology 12-25.

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The development of any nation is essentially hinged on the level of its productive activities; however, it is believed that such activities are dependent on the abundance and optimum utilisation of available talents/skills. Previous researches have identified that Africa possess inexhaustible human and material resources, which due to poor management, have remained hidden, untapped and mismanaged. This has been demonstrated by the fact that when exposed to nurturing climate in advanced territories of Asia, Europe and America, Africans have continued to thrive. This paper argued that the Nigerian society has continued to experience underdevelopment in some sectors due to poor management of available resources. A core factor identified for this pathetic situation is the exclusive emphasis on certificate as a measure of competence and excellence in most establishments over talents and skills. It is quite appalling that individuals with formal education degrees are usually given priority over those with demonstrable talents even when such outshine their educated peers upon proper evaluation; thus, many talents have been made to waste away since they have no ‘white paper’ to tender. This paper recommended that talents and skills should be placed on equal pedestal as necessary tools for development, local talents/skills should be sought, nurtured, empowered and granted opportunities and bias towards talented people without formal education should be controlled. The research adopted a combination of methods; the analytic method helped clarify key concepts; descriptive method provided details on identifiable phenomena while the prescriptive method provided measures for improving the situation.

Keywords: Debunking, Myth, Certification, Talent/skills, Sustainable Development

Introduction

African countries have continued to experience surge in the rate of underdevelopment over the years and this is traceable to factors such as lack of proper leadership, poor education standard, poor infrastructures, bribery and corruption, porous security system, exclusive dependence on foreign nations amongst others. However, this paper argued that Africa possesses more than enough resources needed for it to rise above challenges and grow to a world worthy of emulation if they are properly managed. Against this backdrop, it identified that several talents in Africa remained untapped and left to waste due to the elitist behaviour adopted in many African countries. Using Nigeria as a benchmark, it is argued that the emphasis placed on certificate as a measure of competence has adversely affected talented but uneducated individuals. Put differently, a lot of individuals with exceptional talents in different fields but who have not had the opportunity to undergo western education have been sidelined from contributing to the development of their community. Nonetheless, it should be noted that this paper is not aimed at condemning formal education, however, the argument is that it is not always a measure of intelligence and creativity. Thus, this paper argued that equal opportunity should be provided for educated individuals as well as uneducated but talented ones if Nigeria really aims at promoting sustainability. It is believed that when opportunities are provided to develop and promote local talents, the nation would achieve rapid development compared to concentrating all resources to solely promoting certificated knowledge.

Theoretical Framework

This paper is hinged on the theoretical paradigm of post-modernism, a philosophical idea traceable to the early 19^th century. From structural analysis, the term is a compound of the words ‘post’ meaning ‘after’ or ‘against’ and ‘modernism’ which denotes ‘modern or updated ideas’. Simply put, post-modernism denotes a shift of knowledge claims from or beyond what is obtained in the modern period. It is a philosophical position which rejects all attempts at modernism or modern elements of knowledge. It is a movement in the arts and literature which emerged as a reaction/rejection of the dogma, principles, or practices of established modernism.[1]Considering its historical antecedents, postmodernism is traceable to the end of World War II and featured the birth of human rights as well as emergence of philosophies such as existentialism, absurdism and nihilism. Carter[2] identified that postmodernism appeared firstly in the field of painting, architecture and civil engineering, before moving to philosophy, literature, art, technology and the rest of humanities. Today, the theory has invaded disciplines such as education, sociology, anthropology, science, economics, politics and culture. In recent times, it is reflected via a lot of social movements which has emerged demanding for the end of ideologies and exit of all standard measurement to create new sources of power in society.

Postmodernism is traceable to the works of scholars like Jean Baudrillard (who developed the idea of floating truth), Jacques Derrida (who invented Deconstructionism), German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (who declared the death of God), French intellectual Jean-Francis Lyotard (who proclaimed the impossibility of absolute truth) and Michael Foucault (who projected the liberation of man from power and the institutional power of the state).[3]It aims to undermine elements of Western metaphysics and the central arguments that dominated ancient and modern Western thoughts (such as language, identity, origin, and mind) by advocating a philosophy of anarchy, nihilism, disassembly, and disorder. It also aims to abandon traditional concepts and tools in the analysis of society and state relations (such as social class, ethnic/cultural conflict, party representation and associations between citizens and respective state institutions and their access to civil rights). Similarly, it is characterised by denial of all assumptions of modernism such as the pursuit of the ultimate truth and knowledge; advocates of post-modernism argue that the pursuit of truth is the largest human error committed in the course of scientific and practical goal. They also rejected the idea of representation of one class by others especially in politics because of the differences in each individual as well as in their culture and orientation.[4]Related to this research, it is believed that the Nigerian society should adopt a postmodern orientation by detaching itself from the generally held view that possession of certificate indicates the real test of individual’s competence and ability. It is argued that the contemporary Nigerian society should transcend the common norm of promoting certification over talents or skills of individuals if it really aims at attaining sustainability. This is premised on the assumption that there are lots of individuals who possess abundant talents which remain untapped because they are considered not properly certificated. Thus, it is argued that emphasis should be placed more on discovering and nurturing such talents alongside their certificated counterparts in order to provide a path for improved creativity in all sectors of the country and facilitate sustainable development.

Conceptual Clarification

Debunking

The term is derived from the combination of prefix ‘de’ meaning ‘remove’ and ‘bunk’ meaning ‘nonsense’. To debunk something therefore means to take the bunk out of it or prove that it has been exaggerated too much to be true. Basically, debunking can be conceived as an attempt to remove nonsense from something or to show that an idea/belief is not as good as people think. It can also be viewed as the attempt to show that an idea is less important or true than it has been made to appear.

Myth           

This refers to stories from ancient times which aim to explain natural events or state the causes of things. They are well-known stories which were made up in the past to explain natural events or to justify religious beliefs or social customs. Such stories basically lack truth-value but are conjured in order to at least give explanations to unknown causes of things. Popular examples include Greek and African mythologies on creation of the world.

Certification

The term is derived from the word “certificate” and could be conceived both as a process and as an object. In the first sense, it refers to the act of certifying or giving certificates/documents to a person to demonstrate completion of a course/programme of education and prove his/her competence. It also refers to the process of giving someone or something an official document that says they are allowed to do a certain job or that something is of good quality. In the second sense, it refers to designated credentials earned by an individual to verify their legitimacy and competence to perform a job. Such credentials usually feature the personal details of the holder, type and duration of training as well as demographic information about the issuer. It is usually awarded only after the holder has passed the proper assessments administered by the recognised institution issuing it. Such credentials are important because they promote competitive advantage for the holder, demonstrate their efficiency, define their professional credibility, equips them with earning ability and provide avenue to expand their knowledge and skills.[5]

Talent

This basically refers to the natural ability or special endowment to do something well above others. It also refers to an individual endowment, skills or aptitude which makes him/her capable of performing exceptionally at a task better than others. Such capabilities are usually meant to be identified and developed in people who possess them in order to ensure that they reach their full potentials. They are usually demonstrated through several creative activities such as writing, singing, dancing, painting, sports etc.

Sustainable Development

The term can be properly delineated by analysing the terms ‘sustainable’ and ‘development’. Sustainable denotes something that is used in a way that does not harm the environment and made available for future generations. Development refers to the advancement in the ways of doing things or operating a society. Sustainable development refers to the situation in which a society is properly developed to take care of its citizens and promote the welfare of the present and future generations. According to International Institute of Sustainable Development[6], sustainable development is a form of development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The term was introduced by Harlem Brundtland at the first Earth Summit known as the “United Nations Conference on Environment and Development” which was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (June 3–14, 1992). The conference was aimed at reconciling worldwide economic development with protection of the environment by promoting the use of nonrenewable resources.[7]Plausibly, in order to promote sustainable development, the United Nations Organisation in 2015 spelt out 17 key Development Goals which nations of the world are expected to pursue if they really aim to promote sustainable development. These include poverty eradication; zero hunger; good health and well-being; quality education; gender equality; clean water and sanitation; affordable and clean energy; decent work and economic growth; industry, innovation and infrastructure; reduced inequalities; sustainable cities and communities; responsible consumption and production; climate action; life below water; life on land; peace, justice, and strong institutions; and partnerships for the goals. The SDGs are designed to promote social, political, economic, health and educational development as well as gender equality.[8]

History of Certification in Nigerian Education System

Nigerian education history is comprised of three stages namely; pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial era. The pre-colonial era was comprised of indigenous education and extended to Islamic education. The indigenous form of education existed in Nigeria before the 1840s and was taught without fixed curriculum contents or location. Children were taught practical skills that were necessary depending on the needs of the local community and general society. Children embarked on this form of education in tender years starting from two to three years and were expected to belong to an age group through which specific duties could be assigned to them such as clearing brush or sweeping lanes. As they grew older, they were given specific tasks depending on their sex; boys were taught farming or more specialised tasks, (such as drumming and wood carving) while girls were taught domestic skills and trades. The boys would also enter into apprentice-style relationships with master craftsmen, and continued learning for lengthy years until they were deemed qualified enough to become independent upon exposure to ranges of tests and challenges.[9] However, it could be established that indigenous education offered no form of certification to signify completion of learning experiences.

Proceeding to Islamic education which was much prominent in the northern parts of Nigeria, children were taught purely Islamic religious education before the British arrival in the 1840s. Each Muslim community had a Mallam who taught children as early as 5 years old the teachings of the Qur’an and the Arabic alphabet at elementary level. In larger cities, communities set up schools that also taught science and Mathematics. Upon the complete memorisation and mastery of the Koran by students, special celebration known as “Walimat Ceremony” was conducted to mark the end of basic education. At the secondary school level, students were introduced to variety of subjects like Arabic Grammar, Hadith, Literature, Poetry, Rhetoric, Islamic Law and commentaries on the Koran. At this level, students were taught by many Mallams and are prepared for acquisition of higher Islamic knowledge. At the post-secondary stage, students were taught by more knowledgeable Islamic scholars, Imams and Alakalis are exposed to courses like Grammar, Syntax, Theology and interpretation of Islamic Laws (Shariah). Upon completion of this stage, it was identified that students were presented with certificate or license known as “Ijaza” which enables him to practice either as a teacher, Imam or Alakali. Therefore, it could be identified that there was provision for certification in Islamic education.[10]

Moving to the colonial era, education in Nigeria proceeded with the coming of the British and American missionaries in the 1840s.  British missionaries introduced the first form of western education to Nigeria when they started the first primary school in 1842 and 9 years later, the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS) Grammar School was opened by Christian Missionaries in Lagos, becoming the first secondary school to open in Nigeria. The earliest form of education was mainly focused on teaching Christian doctrines in conjunction with the 3Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetic). However, upon complaint by the people and demand for a better form of education, vocational subjects such as Carpentry, Brick-making, Printing and Masonry were introduced. Subsequently, the demand for tertiary education by the educated elites led to the establishment of a Teacher-Training College (St. Andrews College of Education, Oyo) in 1896, a vocational centre in Abeokuta in 1856 and the first Nigerian university (University of Ibadan) in 1948. At the same time as the public schools and universities were being formed, many private schools were founded and built to provide a multitude of choices for the different social classes in Nigeria.[11]Nonetheless, it could be established that the colonial form of education made provision for certification of students upon the completion of each level of education. This can be justified with the provision for certification of teachers identified in the Education Ordinance of 1887and registration of teachers in the Education Ordinance of 1926 and 1948. Another justification is the evidence from the 6-3-3-4 system of education which was adopted where progression to the next stage is allowed.[12]

The post-colonial era of Nigerian education inherited the 6-3-3-4 system and operated it until 2008 when the 9-3-4 policy was developed. This system consists of 9 years of basic education, 3 years of secondary school education and 4 years of tertiary education. The 9-year basic curriculum consists of lower basic education, primary 1-3 and junior secondary classes 1-3.When a student completes primary education, they receive a Primary School Leaving Certificate, and students that pass the entrance exam to gain entry to secondary school are awarded a Basic Education Certificate. Secondary School students are able to choose from formal and vocational education options and exposed to core subjects like Mathematics, English, Civic Studies and Entrepreneural Studies as well as departmental subjects across different areas of study such as science, arts and business. Vocational education offers the students option to gain skills in areas other than those of the formal education curriculum, such as hair styling, crafting and fashion designing where certificates are issued upon completion. Likewise, upon completion of secondary school, students need to pass the senior school examination, which is prepared by the West African Examination Council (WAEC) or the National Examination Council (NECO) as well as the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) to gain admission into Nigerian tertiary institutions. However, it is to be noted that the goals of each aspect of tertiary education was quite different from the other; while the university was structured to ensure that the students are prepared to contribute towards national development and promote entrepreneurial spirit in students,  Colleges of Education are aimed towards developing students who want to become competent teachers; also, Polytechnics were structured to provide exclusive hands-on approach to teaching students who want to acquire proper skills in aspects of Engineering, Industrialisation or Economics.[13]Nonetheless, the contemporary Nigerian system has continued to witness crises resulting from the failure to fully implement the provisions of contemporary educational policy that each child should be placed into educational institutions according to their abilities. This is evident in the continuous desire by all to pursue tertiary education and get certificated in order to gain access to the competitive employment opportunities available. The impacts of this would be discussed in the next section.

The Impacts of Excessive Emphasis on Certification on Nigerian Development

The Nigerian society has continued to experience a huge slide in several aspects of its development plans due to excessive emphasis on the quality of certificates. This has manifested in several ways and need to be addressed before the situation gets uncontrollable. A fundamental effect of this menace is the continuous surge in the rate of examination malpractice. It could be argued that the desire for certificate over skills is one of the reasons behind the increased rate of examination malpractice and other vices in Nigerian educational institutions. Since the contemporary Nigerian society places premium on the grades of degrees as a measure of intelligence and competence, average students resort to engage in examination malpractice as levelers to achieve excellent grades required to make them employable and compete with other brilliant students upon completion of their studies. It is alarming that the menace of examination malpractice has gone beyond tertiary educational institutions and has become more prevalent in secondary schools especially during external examinations. Unlike in the past when students tended to hide the acts, now they advertise them with pride and even with assistance from their parents, teachers, school administrators and examination officials. Prevalent acts of malpractice include impersonation, leakage of questions, tampering with results and bribing of invigilators and security personnel charged with supervising examinations. Providing factual evidence, it could be identified that the West African Examination Council (WAEC) published the names of schools who were evidently involved in examination malpractice in the May/June 2022 examination diet throughout the country and sanctioned them accordingly. Precisely, 61 schools were reportedly sanctioned in Kogi state[14],50 schools in Oyo state[15], 35 schools in Rivers State[16]and 46 schools in Lagos State[17].

Similarly, the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) recently provided evidence of alleged falsification of results by some students who took the 2023 examination. According to Premium Times News[18], the incidence of falsification of JAMB results has gone on for years, however, they have not stirred up much public outcry like the recent controversy between the admission board and a candidate, Miss Mmesoma Ejikeme (a student of Anglican Girls Secondary School (AGSS) Nnewi, Anambra State) who was alleged to have inflated her examination scores from 249 to 362 and declared herself as the highest scoring candidates to claim unmerited favours from influential citizens and government officials before she was apprehended. The report also identified that several students were involved in the act in 2019; it was identified that five students were caught and reprimanded; Ifesinachi John inflated his scores from 265 to 380, Kingsley Unekwe from 201 to 269, Ada Eche from 153 to 290, Cletus Kokowa, from 162 to 206 and Rejoice Mordifrom 164 to 264. These incidents are confirmed to have been carried out in collaboration with the candidates’ parents or with private examination agents who normally charge substantial fees for their services.[19]

Another problem resulting from excessive emphasis on certificate over skills in Nigeria is the prevalent rise in the rate of certificate forgery. This has allowed crooks and unqualified individuals to earn undeserved favours using fake qualifications. On multiple occasions, reports about certificate forgery by top government officials and important dignitaries appear in the news. Notable examples include Salisu Buhari (Speaker of the House of Representatives in Nigeria from 1999 to 2000) who was impeached on the grounds of falsifying his age and educational qualifications; Kemi Adeosun (former Minister of Finance) who  was forced to resign after she was detected to have forged her NYSC exemption certificate in 2012, Christian Abah (member of the House of Representatives representing from Ado/Okpokwu/Ogbadigbo Federal Constituency in Benue State) who was forced to step down in March,2017 after being detected to have  submitted a forged academic certificate to INEC and Peter Mbah (Enugu State Governor-elect) whose NYSC certificate submitted to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) was confirmed not to have been issued by the Director General of the NYSC.[20]It is argued that such issues have had devastating effects on the educational sector as the rate of confidence in the country’s certificate has dwindled down to the international scene. This spells out the reason why Nigerian students are usually subjected to rigorous examinations upon migration to developed nations in order to decide their level of competency and prove whether or not they can defend the certificates they hold.

Similarly, it could be identified that excessive emphasis on certification has resulted into under-utilisation of available talents and increased rate of unemployment and underdevelopment. It could be argued that several talented and competent people have been denied the opportunity to contribute their quota to the development of the country due to the perception that they are ‘uncertificated’ and thus ‘unsuitable’ to fill in available job position. However, at several instances, it has been proven that even many ‘certificated graduates’ lack the skills for coping with the rigours of the professional world. This problem is observable in both public and private sectors of the economy. For example, it could be demonstrated that a lot of certified graduates of Mechanical Engineering struggle to cope with job puzzles which a public perceived ‘Uneducated Mechanic’ who has never had formal training in the engineering field would easily unravel. Similarly, in the field of creative arts, several talented individuals have proven that being certificated is not essentially the sole measure of excellent performances. The Nigerian entertainment industry could boast of a lot of people who had no professional experience in fields where they have excelled or even perform better than most people who are professionally trained in such fields. This appears enough to demonstrate the need to deviate from excessive emphasis on certification in such fields before granting opportunities to people. In addition, the excessive emphasis on certificate has resulted to the denial of the political rights of some citizens who possibly could have blessed the nation with their remarkable ideas. The Nigerian constitution requires that the minimum qualifications needed for holding most political positions is Secondary School Leaving Certificate. This implies that certain individuals who even though may be very intelligent and possess political charisma would be denied chances to hold positions due to lack of academic qualifications.

Furthermore, it could be argued that the emphasis on certificate during recruitment processes in government and private organisations have rendered people less productive and certificate-centred. This is because most students have been conditioned to focus only on cognitive contents in order to graduate with exceptional grades or certificates which is required to acquire lucrative jobs rather than look inwards to developing their talents or skills. Hence a lot of talents which could have promoted sustainable development have been allowed to be buried away. According to Kong-Kol[21] in spite of all the human and material resources available, Nigeria has not fully utilised them for its development compared to developed nations in Europe and Asia. This is because it is overpopulated with a larger percentage of unproductive and unskilled people as ‘most youths already have the mentality that all they need to succeed in life is a certificate, not the skills and technical know-how of doing things.’ Aririahu[22] identified that the exclusive emphasis on certificate explains why Nigerian graduates lack employability skills which are needed to survive in the labour world as most students already have excessive confidence in certificates they hold and do not consider entrepreneurship skills as worth having even though implemented in the school curriculum. He also noted that most students only read to just pass their examination and come out with a high CGPA without being equipped practically or exposed to the reality of life situations. Even graduate students consider it degrading to learn skills or take up a skill-oriented jobs simply because ‘they are graduates’; a notion which is untenable in developed countries of the world where possessing a skill or trade before graduation is compulsory. In addition, he identified that most recruiters in Nigeria request that applicants must possess some level of work experience with some years of practice without giving room for fresh graduates to even learn the ropes of the job before perfecting in the job roles and this has worsened the situation. Based on this, it is pertinent to identify some strategies which could help curtail the situation and improve on the status quo.

The Way Forward

From the discussions above, it is important to provide some suggestive measures to remedy the status quo in order to ensure that the Nigerian society experiences positive transformation. Basically, it is argued that that there should be conscious effort to de-emphasise the usage of certificate only as a measure of competence and employability. This would help to prevent the reckless drive towards attaining excellent certifications without proper skills just to stand a chance in the competitive labour market, Thus, it would allow people more opportunities to develop their skills to fit better to key job responsibilities. According to Kong-Kol[23]:

In Nigeria for example, we will hear an advertisement is placed looking for degree holders in some cases upper credit. This shows that our emphasis is placed more on paper, not what the applicant could offer after employment. Times without numbers, I have come across those who are not degree holders or degree holders with lower grades who function more than those with the second class upper or even first class.

In addition, it is argued that there should be proper provision for the development of the education curriculum to fit into the needs of the immediate environment and in line with national aspirations. This would help motivate learners to focus especially on acquisition of knowledge content once they realize that it is exclusively related to their immediate environment and future aspirations. The Vanguard Newspaper (July 17, 2014) reporting the words of Engr. Babatunde Adewale Odufuwa (Chairman, Governing Council, Lagos City Polytechnic), during her eighth convocation disclosed that there is a need to resolve the disconnect between the products of tertiary education system and the skills they possess by focusing on Research and Development, manufacturing and industrial growth for exports rather than projects which are not employment-generating. He recommended that “Nigerian educational system must be home-made to reflect the needs of her environment and learn from the mistakes of developed countries.” Odufuwa[24] reiterated that the Nigerian education system should aim to produce teachers and artisans who are well educated in the use of their skills to serve and support the graduates of various disciplines.

Odufuwa[25]also reiterated that there is a need to promote entrepreneurial spirit through the re-opening of vocational training centres for artisans. This will assist in enhancing the delivery of professional skills to learners via semi-formal education and set them on the path to self-reliance. He proceeded to recommend training of semi-skilled labours by updating their education through in-service training, industrial attachment, seminars and workshops where modern techniques and knowledge will be acquired. According to him:

It is the entrepreneurs that make things happen in an economy. They are the drivers of the economy and the creators of wealth. An economy can only be as robust as its entrepreneurs. Therefore, if we must make progress in this economy, our private sector would have to play a major role. The public sector would also have to create the enabling environment.[26]

In agreement with the above position, it is suggested that if Nigeria aims to achieve sustainable development, the education system should be modified to promote the development of lifetime skills in students during undergraduate years rather than mere inculcation of literacy skills and decoration with academic certificates upon graduation. This would help prevent excessive focus on developing only certified graduates whose learning is focused mainly on cognitive knowledge at the detriment of the other domains; such a move would ensure an all-round education development in students. It would also ensure proper development of students into functional, creative and rational individuals who can contribute to the development and progress of the society and the nation at large.  This can be properly restated thus:

 Schools should be designed not only for learning but for thinking. Schools and colleges are being asked to produce men and women who can think, make new scientific discoveries, find adequate solutions to impending world problems, who cannot be brainwashed, men and women who can adapt to change and maintain sanity in this age of acceleration.[27]

Kong-Kol[28] also suggested a review of the educational system to ensure that the developmental framework and ideology of acquiring practical knowledge imbibed by developed nations is reflected. He noted that Nigerian youths be should be developed to become creative and innovative so that they will be self-sufficient as observed in developed nations. He argued that ‘It is high time for Nigeria and indeed Africa to emulate countries like England, America, Germany, Japan and China by prioritising the practical knowledge of students (what they can offer after graduation) not their certificates.’ According to him:

It is good to note that the secret behind the success of the developed countries is that their educational institutions and places of work value skills more than theory and certificates in teaching and recruitment. They graduate practitioners and talented engineers but the reverse is the case in Nigeria and some African countries. We graduate mostly certificate holders and job seekers. Nigeria has not achieved much in raising people’s productivity and technological advances because the system focused more on theory rather than practical. There is a need for a total overhaul to experience a change. [29]

In the long run, it is recommended that instead of building more universities and graduating thousands of job seekers, Nigeria needs to embark on the building of skills acquisition centres across the country so that citizens will be turned to job providers. These establishments would help to develop skills in youths rather than focus on their certificate grades in taking employment decisions. In attempt to corroborate this position, the earlier experiences of Kong-Kol demonstrates a decline in the rate of skill promotion in the Nigerian communication sector. According to him:

While growing up in my village in the late 90s, I was curious to know the criteria for one to become a journalist with the international media organisations such as the BBC, VOA and DW because I developed an interest in becoming a journalist right from my childhood. I discovered that in recruitment, these organisations are after nothing like certificates but skills as most of their staff were taken from radio stations in Nigeria. Surprisingly, I came to understand that most of them are not degree holders but skill holders. Their professionalism earned them employment.[30]

In conclusion, it has been identified that Nigerian tertiary institutions release about 600 000 graduates each year without a corresponding provision of jobs for them. It is suggested d that the Nigerian educational system should be developed in a way to accommodate different degrees of talents and skills and ensure that people are not just evaluated based on their academic competence alone. In other words, emphasis should be placed on individual’s capabilities, skills and talents rather than on qualifications or certificate held alone in order to retain the best talents and foster sustainable development in the country.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed the idea of certification in Nigerian educational system starting from its evolution. It has been identified that although it was nonexistent within the framework of indigenous education, the issuance of certificate is traceable to the pre-colonial period of Arabic/Islamic education when graduates were offered practicing license (Ijaza) to signify their competence. It resurfaced during the 19^th century with the practice of Western education. However, the emphasis on certificate since the colonial era has been identified as the main reason why talents/skills are no longer given precedence in the Nigerian educational system. The excessive emphasis on certificate has resulted to the persistent rise in the rate of examination malpractice, certificate forgery, poor emphasis on development of vocational skills among youths as well as the increase rate of unemployment in contemporary world. This paper concluded that there should be a revision of the status quo if Nigeria really aimed at sustainable development.

Recommendations

This paper recommended that to attain economic sustainability in Nigeria, there should be conscious effort to de-emphasise the usage of certificate as the sole measure of competence and employability. It is also recommended that skill acquisition programmes should be incorporated into the school curriculum to ensure that students acquire the skills and knowledge needed to become self-reliant upon graduation. This would also enable them to value skills-acquisition as an integral part of knowledge rather than focus exclusively on intellectual development. Also, it is recommended that indigenous arts and crafts as well as vocations should be reintroduced and modernised to enable students to acquire practical knowledge about the economy of their respective societies. Similarly, it is recommended that skill acquisition centres should be established at strategic locations throughout the country and properly managed to enhance active involvement of youths in the programme, for example there should be a form of partnership between agencies like the National Youth Service Corps to ensure that youths sincerely benefit from skill acquisition and acquire the necessary competence required to survive after graduation. In addition, it is recommended that proper talent discovery and development system should be developed across all levels of the educational system to develop and nurture talented individuals so that they can use such talents for the upliftment of the nation. Also, there should be adequate infrastructures and incentives to retain such talents as they grow in order to prevent persistent brain-drain in the country. Finally, it is recommended that job requirements across all sectors of the economy should be made flexible to place more emphasis on talents/skills over certification in order to change the orientation of people towards skill acquisition as a secondary requirement for lucrative job offers. This would help develop a generation of conscious, skilled and responsible individuals who can contribute to the development of their society and promote economic sustainability in the country.

References

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Adesulu, D. (2014). ‘Odufuwa-We Need More Skills than Certificates in Nigeria’ Vanguard        Newspaper. July 17, 2014 Available at https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.vanguardngr.com/2014/07/need-skills-certificates-   -odufuwa/amp/

Adisa, O. (2023). “Tackling Examination Malpractice.”Punch Newspaper, 14 February, 2023.      Retrieved from https://www.google.com/amp/s/punchng.com/tackling-examination-            malpractice/%3famp

Akanbi, G. O. (2010). Historical Development of Education in Nigeria: An Introduction.    Nigeria: Odumatt Press.

Andrew, E. (2022). History of Education in Nigeria. Retrieved from           https://www.unicaf.org/history-of-education-in-nigeria/

Aririahu, C. (2021).10 Reasons Why Nigerian Graduates are Unemployed and Unemployable.      Available at https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.afterschoolafrica.com/55704/10-        reasons-why-nigerian-graduates-are-unemployed-and-unemployable/amp/

Carter, D. (2012). Literary theory. USA: Oldcastle Books.

Dictionary.com (2016). Postmodernism. Retrieved from       http://www.dictionary.com/browse/postmodernism.

Elaati, A. (2016). Postmodernism Theory. Retrieved from             https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303812364_POSTMODERNISM_THEORY

Encyclopedia Britannica (2023). Sustainable Development. Retrieved from             https://www.britannica.com/topic/sustainable-development

Federal Ministry of Education (1989). National Policy on Education. Nigeria: NERDC

Indeed Editorial (2023). What Are Certifications? Definition, Benefits, Types and Examples.          Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-are-         certifications

International Institute of Sustainable Development (2023). Sustainable Development. Retrieved   from https://www.iisd.org/mission-and-goals/sustainable-development

Kong-kol, B. (2021). ‘Prioritising Skills, Not Certificates Can Push Nigeria To China’s Track’       Daily Trust News, September 30, 2021, Available at       https://www.membership.dailytrust.com/prioritising-skills-not-certificates-can-push-   nigeria-to-chinas-track/

Ngschoolz (2023). WAEC Sanctions 60 Schools In Lagos Over Exam Malpractice. Retrieved from              https://www.ngschoolz.net/waec-sanctions-60-schools-in-lagos-over-exam-malpractice/

Ofiebor  O. (2022). “Examination Malpractices: WAEC Bans 35 Schools in Rivers (full list)”PM News 21 March. 2022 Retrieved from  https://www.google.com/amp/s/pmnewsnigeria.com/2022/03/21/examination-            malpractices-waec-bans-35-schools-in-rivers-full-list/%3famp=1

Omole, A. (2023). WAEC Sanctions 61 Secondary Schools Over Examination Malpractices In       Kogi. Retrieved from https://leadership.ng/waec-sanctions-61-secondary-schools-over-         examination-malpractices-in-kogi/

Suleiman, Q. (2023). “Flashback: Five times JAMB Caught Candidates Who Falsified their          UTME Results”Premium Times News, 5 July, 2023. Retrieved from                        https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/608129-flashback-five-times-jamb-       caught-candidates-who-falsified-their-utme-results.html

Ugwu, F.  (2023). “Top Politicians in the Web of alleged Certificate Scandal”Daily Post News,    May     24, 2023. Retrieved from            https://www.google.com/amp/s/dailypost.ng/2023/05/24/top-           politicians-in-the-            web-of-alleged-certificate-scandal/%3famp=1

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[1]Dictionary.com. Postmodernism. Retrieved from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/postmodernism, 2016

[2]D. Carter, Literary theory. USA: Oldcastle Books. 2012

[3] A. Elaati, Postmodernism Theory, 2016.

[4]Ibid. pp.3-4

[5]Indeed Editorial. What Are Certifications? Definition, Benefits, Types and Examples, 2023.          Retrieved from https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-are-  certifications

[6]International Institute of Sustainable Development. Sustainable Development. 2023. Retrieved   from https://www.iisd.org/mission-and-goals/sustainable-development

[7]Encyclopedia Britannica. Sustainable Development, 2023. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/sustainable-development

[8]United Nations Development Programme. Sustainable Development Goals. 2015. Retrieved from https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals

[9]E. Andrew, History of Education in Nigeria.2022. Retrieved from        https://www.unicaf.org/history-of-education-in-nigeria/

[10]G. Akanbi, Historical Development of Education in Nigeria: An Introduction. Nigeria: Odumatt Press, 2010,Pp.27-28

[11]Ibid. Pp. 32-35

[12]G. Akanbi, Historical Development of Education in Nigeria: An Introduction.Nigeria: Odumatt Press, 2010. p.36

[13]E. Andrew, History of Education in Nigeria.2022.

[14]A. Omole, WAEC Sanctions 61 Secondary Schools Over Examination Malpractices In Kogi.2023. Retrieved from https://leadership.ng/waec-sanctions-61-secondary-schools-over-examination-malpractices-in-kogi/

[15]W. Adebayo, WAEC Delists 50 Secondary Schools Over Examination Malpractices In Oyo,2023. Retrieved from https://leadership.ng/waec-delists-50-secondary-schools-over- examination-malpractices-in-oyo

[16]O. Ofiebor, “Examination Malpractices: WAEC Bans 35 Schools in Rivers (full list)” PM News 21 March. 2022 Retrieved from https://www.google.com/amp/s/pmnewsnigeria.com/2022/03/21/examination-malpractices-waec-bans-35-schools-in-rivers-full-list/%3famp=1

[17]Ngschoolz, WAEC Sanctions 60 Schools In Lagos Over Exam Malpractice,2023. Retrievedfrom  https://www.ngschoolz.net/waec-sanctions-60-schools-in-lagos-over-exam-malpractice/

[18]Premium Times News, 5 July, 2023. Retrieved from https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/608129-flashback-five-times-jamb-caught-candidates-who-falsified-their-utme-results.html

[19]Q. Suleiman, “Flashback: Five times JAMB Caught Candidates Who Falsified their UTME Results”, 2023.

[20]F. Ugwu, “Top Politicians in the Web of alleged Certificate Scandal” Daily Post News,   May        24, 2023. Retrieved from https://www.google.com/amp/s/dailypost.ng/2023/05/24/top-politicians-in-the-web-of-alleged-certificate-scandal/%3famp=1

[21] B. Kong-kol, ‘Prioritising Skills, Not Certificates Can Push Nigeria To China’s Track’     Daily Trust News, September 30, 2021, Available at            https://www.membership.dailytrust.com/prioritising-skills-not-certificates-can-push-nigeria-to-chinas-track/

[22]C. Aririahu, 10 Reasons Why Nigerian Graduates are Unemployed and Unemployable.2021. Available at https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.afterschoolafrica.com/55704/10-                reasons-why-nigerian-graduates-are-unemployed-and-unemployable/amp/

[23] B. Kong-kol, ‘Prioritising Skills, Not Certificates Can Push Nigeria To China’s Track’       Daily Trust News, September 30, 2021

[24]D. Adesulu, ‘Odufuwa-We Need More Skills than Certificates in Nigeria’ Vanguard Newspaper. July 17, 2014 Available at https://www.google.com/amp/s/www.vanguardngr.com/2014/07/need-skills-certificates- -odufuwa/amp/

[25]Ibid.

[26]Ibid.

[27]D. Adesulu, ‘Odufuwa-We Need More Skills than Certificates in Nigeria’ Vanguard Newspaper. July 17, 2014

[28] B. Kong-kol, ‘Prioritising Skills, Not Certificates Can Push Nigeria To China’s Track’       Daily Trust News, September 30, 2021

[29]Ibid

[30] B. Kong-kol, ‘Prioritising Skills, Not Certificates Can Push Nigeria To China’s Track’       Daily Trust News, September 30, 2021

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

This paper examines the issues concerning the University autonomy act and the emerging crisis in the university education. it further analysed the philosophies of Nigerian universities education policies, including issues of appointments of Governing council and Vice Chancellor, funding, recruitment, and clarifies some misunderstandings and ambiguities about what it means to University Autonomy by assessing the policy’s strengths and weaknesses as a whole and inconsistent with the laws and statutes of the University and should not apply to the Universities. The philosophical tools ofanalytic, speculative and descriptivein describing the condition of university education policies in Nigeria will be used. The paper recommends that Government should be committed to revitalizing the country’s education system and making it more responsive and globally competitive. No country can achieve economic, social, political and cultural prospecting without a sound and functional education system and Governments need to understand the significance of autonomy: policy autonomy results in comparatively good educational achievement, while management autonomy is crucial for research productivity and attractiveness. Governments have to give serious thought to whether the current autonomy of their institutions and the amount of public funding for each student is really enhancing the skills of their graduates and the calibre and volume of their research output.

Introduction

The question of how much autonomy the universities should have has continued to be a recurrent issue in all European and African higher education system particularly where the former communist and colonialist regimes had drastically limited university autonomy and academic freedom through ideological and political control. Nigeria in particular has adopted radical reforms strategies for university education to washed out academic freedom and autonomy in Nigerian universities education and also facing a period of crisis in and reappraisal of university education to an unstable equilibrium as the universities seek to optimize their autonomy, while society frequently seeks to control it. Consequently, autonomy unavoidably depends on the political climate of society as a whole. It is particularly susceptible to broad political developments and conflicts between the recognised rights of society and the institution.

The country’s philosophy of education places an extreme value on the need to: mould each person into a good and useful citizen; integrate each person into the community; and provide equal access to educational opportunities for all citizens of the nation, both inside and outside the formal school system. Using the aforementioned concept as a basis, Nigerian universities attempt to transform the Nigerian individual into a complete person capable of adjusting to his environment in order to promote and increase growth. Successive Nigerian administrations must make sure that university education specifically cultivates and retains employees capable of advancing science and technology, as this is the cornerstone of a successful economic system that underpins much of what is feasible in Nigeria. University education is also crucial for enacting desired change in any nation. The analysed and critically examine to bridge the gap between past, present and future challenges of Nigerian universities education system.

Concept of University Autonomy

Despite widespread adoption, little effort has been put into developing and elucidating the concept of autonomy. There is only “autonomy,” “independence,” and “self-government,” yet No guidance is provided with regard to how to assess these synonyms. University autonomy allows universities to select students and staff, shape curriculum, and allocate funds. However, government influence can be exerted through legislative authority and executive suasion. University autonomy is meaningful only in research and teaching functions where it is allowed to govern itself, secure from state interference and political interplay. University management involves the day-to-day administrative management of university affairs, including the Vice-Chancellor, his deputy, the Provost, the Registrar, the Bursar, the University Librarian, and other administrative staff. This includes the Deans of faculties and students, heads of departments, and sub-deans, all of whom are involved in various forms of administration within the university. The erosion of university autonomy in Nigeria is becoming a significant concern. Government interference in the appointment of important university managers, like Chancellors and Pro-Chancellors, is impacting university affairs and promoting a more democratic and efficient university system.

Academic freedom is crucial in higher institutions to promote critical thinking, analysis, curiosity, and communication skills. Universities should foster a climate conducive to knowledge pursuit and the application of free will and creativity in the development and expression of thought. This freedom allows students to showcase their skills and contribute to the universally accepted tenets of scientific and intellectual exchanges. This according to Udoji Commission Report cited in Akinwumi and Olaniyan[1], Academic freedom involves “freedom to teach and examine students undisturbed, freedom on what to teach and how to teach it, freedom of research, freedom to select students.  Academic freedom refers to the pursuit of academic truth in institutions, allowing for equity and polemical controversy. It allows teachers and students to investigate and discuss subject problems, express conclusions in publications, and learn without coercion.

According to Ross[2], defines university autonomy as the freedom of the institution to function without undue control or influence by external forces or agencies. It is important to note that there is a new government policy on autonomy for universities in Nigeria. The policy empowers universities to govern themselves, appoint key officers, control staff conditions, student admissions, academic curricula, finance, and regulate themselves as independent legal entities without Federal and States Government interference. Do have university autonomy in Nigeria? What do we mean by University Autonomy?

The new policy for Nigerian universities outlines three aspects of autonomy: academic, administrative, and financial. The degree of autonomy depends on administrative controls and financial dependency. It’s important to note that school autonomy is not the same as local financing or administrative decentralization, as autonomous institutions have authority to allocate resources. Successful reform in public higher education requires greater autonomy, particularly in resource diversification. Academic autonomy grants universities the right to appoint and promote members, determine course content, award degrees, select research projects, publish results, and enjoy constitutional rights. A was pointed out by Papahagi and Stromholm[3]

… the debates … focused on a through analysis of academic freedom and University Autonomy as viewed from various perspective. Including the management of higher education institutions, the penetration of market rules into universities, and the role of higher education in a pluralistic society.

The government controls academic programming at higher education institutions through organisations like JAMB, NUC, and NBTE. The university senate has legislative authority to oversee academic standards and research output, but these organisations ought to suspend and fold powers to ensure every educational institution can choose its own enrolment, admissions criteria, and procedures. The policy for university-level education should prioritize autonomy, academic standards, and international competition. This includes strengthening institutional autonomy, system differentiation, governance, and quality assurance systems. Restoring autonomy in university management can foster national growth, innovation, productivity, and economic growth. While the government focuses on financial autonomy, university autonomy is crucial for university restructuring and reform, agreed upon by both parties. The stringent erosion of university autonomy in government-owned universities, particularly in Nigeria, is affecting their quality and effectiveness. This erosion leads to falling standards, deteriorating infrastructure, and poor human resource development, resulting in a loss of quality resources to private or foreign universities, ultimately affecting the overall education quality in Nigeria.

Universities of Autonomy and Assessment

The preamble of this amendment act emphasises the independence of universities as the primary focus of the act. It is titled “An Act to Amend the Universities (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act No. 11 of 1993 and Provide for the Autonomy of Universities and other related matters”. The autonomy and independence of the universities are explicitly set forth in two new provisions encompassed by this Act: The powers of the Council shall be exercised, as in the Law and Statutes of each University and to this extent establishment circulars that are inconsistent with the Laws and Statutes of the University shall not apply to the Universities.” and the Governing Council of a University shall be free in the discharge of its functions and exercise of its responsibilities for the good management, growth and development of the university[4].” The Universities (Miscellaneous Provisions) (Amendment) Act 2003, also known as the Universities Autonomy Act No. 1, 2007, was passed by the National Assembly and became law on July 10, 2003. It was officially published in the Federal Republic of Nigerian Official Gazette No. 10, Volume 94, on January 12, 2007, as Act No. 1 of 2000.  As such ASUU’s commitment is the frustration among Nigerians and overarching ideology and illusions erected by Nigeria’s irresponsible ruling circle. There is systematic programme of blackmail against the public university system. Some of the reasons why ASUU struggled to save Nigerian Universities were recently call off strike are the implementation of 2019 Memorandum of Action (MOA); Revitalization Funds as agreed in the 2013 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU); Earned Academic Allowance (EEA); renegotiation of 2009 agreement and issue of payment salary system. How can you claim to be autonomous when you are funded by Federal Government and the university system needs to be shielded from external political influence and interference?

Reflecting in the Past

In the past, the Nigerian university education system has encountered several difficulties. These difficulties comprised a lack of financial support from the government, which resulted in insufficient facilities and inadequate learning materials. Furthermore, universities had limited freedom to make decisions that could enhance the quality of education they provided. As a consequence, the curriculum became disconnected from industry needs, and graduates received inadequate training. There is systematic programme of blackmail against the public university system. Some of the reasons why ASUU struggled to save Nigerian Universities were recently call off strike are the implementation of 2019 Memorandum of Action (MOA); Revitalization Funds as agreed in the 2013 Memorandum of Understanding (MOU); Earned Academic Allowance (EEA); renegotiation of 2009 agreement and issue of payment salary system. Additionally, universities struggled with problems such as the loss of talented individuals, low salaries, and insufficient funding for research, making it extremely difficult to retain experienced and skilled staff. Nigerian universities facing the academic corruption everywhere in the universities because of government intervention into university manages activities. The university must hold standards both ethical, moral and academical standard. As at 2021, Nigeria had a total of 202 universities made up of 49 federal universities, 54 state owned universities and 99 privately owned universities[5]. This is in addition to another 80 universities that the immediate past National Assembly members works to establish former President Muhammadu Buhari assent some into the law.

The picture of the distribution of Nigerian universities across the six Geo political zone shows that there are 79 universities in the 19 Northern states viz 33 in the North central Geo political zone, 16 in the North East Geo political and 30 in the North west Geo political zone. Comparatively, the 17 Southern states have 123 universities, distributed in the 27 in the South East Geo political zone. 33 in the South South zone and 63 in the South West Geo political zone.  As at 2021, there were 29 private universities in the entire 19 Northern states with 19 in the North East zone and eight in the North West Geo political zone. In the 17 Southern states there were 70 private universities.

Speculating the Future

Nigerian universities have the ability to make decisions independently without constantly seeking approval from the government. This autonomy allows them to respond more effectively to the needs of both industry and society. By having more control over their own affairs, universities can encourage research, establish stronger connections with industries, and promote innovation. These factors are crucial for Nigeria’s economic growth. Moreover, universities can benefit from industry expertise, research facilities, and funding opportunities, leading to mutual growth and development in various sectors. Additionally, autonomous universities can offer career advancement opportunities for their teaching staff and improve the compensation for lecturers. This will help retain qualified academics within the educational system. 

Industrial unrest in Nigerian public Universities has become a regular occurrence and a reality to urgently deal with. Abdelmalik[6] buttressed on his book Nigeria’s Public University Industrial Unrest and Poverty of Sincerity: the struggle for the survival of Nigerian public Universities. There is wide misinformation and ignorance on why the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) is always on strike to educate the Nigerian society who have little knowledge or no idea of the state of Nigerian public universities and the operating principles. Additionally, some academics who purposefully participate in the ignorance are supposed to be educated. It focuses on ASUU strikes, the rationale behind ASUU’s opposition to IPPIS, the federal government’s central salary payment platform for civil servants, which is being imposed on public universities, the idea of university autonomy, the decline of Nigerian universities and the risk of accepting the manage it that way culture, and the necessity of significant revitalization to prevent the institutions from collapsing completely.  Most State Government Universities and private universities rely on Professors, Associate and Senior Lecturer from old Universities.  Without these categories of Lecturers, the celebrated new universities will not be qualified to award any degree in most of the course they are offering. For individuals who are questioning if academics have the right to sue their employer, keep in mind that we work for the people who are chosen to run Nigeria. For example, there are instances when the Federal Government committed to provide 74 Federal and state institutions with a revitalisation money of 20 billion Naira in January 2021, but there are no records pertaining to that. A practical plan has been devised regarding the procurement and distribution of the 1.1 trillion Naira revitalisation fund. The branch congresses should not accept anything less than the delayed 40 billion Naira in Earned Academic Allowance (EAA). The government team revealed that the Renegotiating team will be reconstituted on or before 31^st October, 2020 and renegotiation will be concluded on or before 31^st December, 2020. On the payment of the withheld salaries and subsequent salaries before UTAS or IPPIS is ready for implementation should not be a problem.

Even though IPPIS seems to have taken the centre stage of the struggle, some of the reasons why ASUU is always on strike as follows:

• the implementation of the 2019 Memorandum of Action (MOA);
• The release of the 1.1 trillion Naira Revitalisation funds as agreed in the 2013 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU);
• The release of Earned Academic Allowance (EAA);
• Renegotiation of 2009 agreement. This renegotiation includes the salary of lecturers and
• The added distraction called IPPIS and the payment of the withheld salaries but recent President Bola Ahmad Tinubu approved the payment half withheld salaries.

There are a lot of questions on the “University Autonomy” and the funding of public Universities. There was a question that “How can you claim to be autonomous when you are funded by Federal or states Governments? It is called a “Public University” because it is funded with public funds, and it is autonomous because the university system needs to be shielded from external political influence and interference.

Effects of University Autonomy and Fundings

Public university education is supposed to serve purely academic education, public research, and social service. Funding policy and government “control” imposed through legislation (here captured as the degree of university autonomy inherent in government policy) represent the means of achieving public university goals. For instance, the impact of autonomy on university performance has been analysed for public research universities in the United States[7].  Universities with a greater degree of autonomy were only found to perform better on endowment and gifts per student, but not on other quality variables such as faculty quality, undergraduate quality, or the levels of government grants per full-time equivalent staff member. “Those campuses which have the most freedom from constraints on their academic programs, and which are funded generously by the state, are most successful in raising funds from alumni”. In this study, state support for universities (i.e. funding) significantly explained university performance (i.e. more funding resulted in better performance). However, reverse causality whether better performance resulted in more funding was not analysed. Furthermore, the imprecise measurement of autonomy could explain why it did not appear to have an impact on university performance.

Problems and Dimensions of Autonomy University System 

Public policies play an important role in enhancing the research outputs and quality of university education. Two sets of public policies can be distinguished: financial instruments and legal instruments, which determine the delivery of university education, and are mostly captured by the term “autonomy”. Consequently, the law gives enough leverage to the system for effective institutional management. The problem, therefore, is not the lack of provisions, with implications for institutional autonomy, but rather government decrees (in the case of military government), laws, acts and circular letters and any relevant prescriptions in the constitution. The Decree No.1 of 1974 and Decree No. 49 of 1988 now both Acts, amending Decree (Act) No. 16 of 1985, Decree (Act) No. 9 of 1993, Decree (Act) No. 11 of 1993, Decree (Act) No. 25 of 1996, and many government decrees (acts)[8], circulars and statutes of councils of universities need to be reviewed as a result of the existing conflicts and confusion. They all undermine the degree of university autonomy. Too much government interference does not guarantee the level of autonomy and academic freedom required in the Ivory Tower. University autonomy may be classified as follows: academic autonomy; administrative autonomy; financial autonomy; and institutional autonomy:

Academic Autonomy (deciding on degree supply, curricula, and methods of teaching; deciding on areas, scope, aims, and methods of research); Academic autonomy allows universities to define their curriculum, syllabus, teaching methods, research methods, and student evaluation. This autonomy allows lecturers to formulate academic policies, programs, and profiles without state interference, allowing universities to achieve their individual mission and vision.

University autonomy holds potentials to make universities accountable and refocus for better. When properly utilized, it can make universities accountable, enabling them to achieve their mission in the best possible ways. The Council manages financial and administrative management, while the Senate handles academic issues, including student discipline. No specific legal provisions have been made for academic freedom, and no evidence of government sanctions or repressive actions. The Senate is responsible for admitting students, teaching courses, assessing degrees, and creating new programs and faculties.

Financial Autonomy (acquiring and allocating funding, deciding on tuition fees, accumulating surplus). The Federal Government is a major financier of federal universities, while stage governments only partake in funding state-owned universities. The proliferation of mushroom satellite study centres in Nigeria limits university autonomy, hindering the allocation of funds for administration, research, and staff development. Financial autonomy allows institutions to determine spending without internal restrictions, promoting quality improvement and avoiding management rigidities. The empty concept of autonomy in universities hinders their ability to control tuition and fees.

 Financially autonomous institutions should be able to set admission requirements, assess tuition, and establish eligibility criteria for financial assistance, ensuring a balanced student population and faculty recruitment. For instance, a breakdown of the Nigerian Budget 2017, National budget N7. 30 trillion where as N448.01 billion allocated to Education (6.00%), In 2018 N8.30 budget allocated to education was N605.80 (7.04%). The National budget 2019 were N8.83 trillion and Education N620.94 billion equivalent to 7.05%. 2020 budget were N10.50 trillion only N652.94 (6.90%) allocation to Education sector and 2021 Nation budget were N17.40 trillion and Education N1.218 trillion (7.0%)[9]. Does Nigerian Government have full implementation of amount injected to educational sector? Some African countries like Egypt, Ghana, South Africa have never budgeted less than 20% for education in the last 10 years.

Administrative autonomy: (setting university structures and statutes, making contracts, electing decision-making bodies and persons). The administration of education is weak administrators appointed to head educational institutions in Nigeria. The Governing Council has statutory authority to determine school dates, year durations, and instruction language, while also ensuring teachers adhere to a national curriculum and manage university finances, appointment, promotion, and discipline.

Administrative autonomy permits flexibility in the combination in inputs and hence improves quality. In its broadest sense, university management encompasses the art of implementing any plan, strategy, or initiative. The phrase as it is used in this study is limited to the category of officers who oversee the daily administrative operations of the institution. Those in one capacity or another in university administration, such as the vice-chancellor and his deputy, the provost and his deputy, the registrar, the bursar, the university librarian, the administrative staff, the deans of faculties and students, the various heads of departments, sub-deans, and all others

Staffing autonomy: (responsibility for recruitment, salaries, and promotions). However, Organizational autonomy and financial autonomy are often combined to form “managerial autonomy. A university’s autonomy, particularly in terms of staffing autonomy, is crucial in ensuring the right calibre of staff is recruited, as it directly impacts the university’s financial and academic stability. The remarks highlight the prospects of university autonomy, which could significantly enhance the university’s productivity and efficiency.

Internal Problem: The paper focuses on the actions of the Academic Staff Union of University (ASUU) and the Non-Academic Staff Union (NASU), which are considered detrimental to the autonomy of the university system. ASUU, the largest university association, significantly influences university operations. With one university autonomy, the Federal Government has less funding. ASUU’s constant demand for improved service could burden management, while NASU may exert pressure.

External Problem: The Federal Government empowered the NUC to maintain and enhance the national relevance of Nigerian University degrees, preventing a situation where international recognition would be lacking.

Lay down minimum standard for all universities in the federation to accredit their degrees and other academic awards after obtaining priory approval… provided that the accreditation of degree and other academic awards shall be in accordance with such guidelines as may be laid down and approved by the commission from time to time[10].

The NUC holds financial and developmental control over universities, with the Chief Executive having access to records and requisition information. They provide guidelines for streamlined programs and categorize courses into core, mandatory, and elective categories. However, the CCMACS is criticized for re-arrangement, leaving the maximum for each university to determine.

Institutional Problem: Despite Nigeria’s anti-corruption campaign, the report released by Transparency International in 2019[11] shows that Nigeria was ranked 146 out the 180 countries compared with Botswana 34^th, Rwanda 51th and Mauritania 56^th among African countries. The Institutional corruption is one of the critical factors frustrating effective administration and planning in the country. This is worsened by diversion, mismanagement, lack of transparency and accountability. Nigeria was ranked 142 out of 144 countries in the index of official corruption, Bagudo.

Philosophy, Policy, and Virtue Ethics

Nigerian universities face challenges in consistently implementing government policy on education due to lack of ideology and policy option. Policy options are developed to address problems faced by individuals, society, and organizations, serving as a guide or plan of action. Sharkansky[12] and Jenkins[13] both emphasize the importance of policy in decision-making, referring to it as a set of inter-related decisions by political actors to achieve goals within a specified situation, ensuring they are within their power. Ideological beliefs are organized for a specific purpose and form the basis of a political movement, regardless of approval or endorsement. The great question of philosophy revolves around the relation between thinking and being, with philosophers regarded as either idealists or materialisms. Idealism asserts thinking’s primacy to nature, while materialism views it as primary. Karl Marx criticized the idealist view of ideology, arguing that it often leads to false consciousness, causing controversy surrounding its impact on education policies in Nigeria.

The Influence of University Autonomy on System Operations

Universities are implementing autonomous teaching methods, reducing government regulations and enhancing student experience, despite potential increased tuition costs. The concept of university autonomy in Nigeria faces opposition from major unions like ASUU, SSANU, NANS, and NASU. They argue that it is an excuse for government inefficiency and reduces budget burden. The majority believe university autonomy in Nigeria means surrendering the government’s right to provide education.

Conclusion

Government agencies and the industrial sector must implement specific policies to foster long-lasting partnerships. Research autonomy in Nigerian university education can lead to growth, innovation, and skill development, meeting labour market demands and boosting economic expansion. However, policy autonomy does not significantly impact research attractiveness and productivity. Academic staff can design courses tailored to students’ needs. The university system is grappling with academic, administrative, and management challenges, prompting a focus on university autonomy. This sensitive, multidimensional concept is central to multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary disciplines, with its implications across various disciplines. The university system is increasingly addressing these challenges to ensure its success. The Educational Sector in Nigeria is striving for academic freedom and institutional autonomy to improve higher learning institutions. However, these institutions are still under government control, with top management influencing the situation. Rebuilding autonomy and academic freedom is crucial for imparting knowledge in tolerable conditions and protecting university allocations from political and power dynamics.

The way forward

From the foregoing, Nigeria appears to be the most ambitious nations on the continent of Africa in Education provision. The paper recommends that Government should be committed to revitalizing the country’s education system and making it more responsive and globally competitive. No country can achieve economic, social, political and cultural prospecting without a sound and functional education system. As long as a strong quality control mechanism is in place, university autonomy should bolster institutions’ capacity to enhance graduates’ competences and research output. Because universities contribute to society via research and education, university autonomy and investments in higher education are significant ways to support (sustainable) economic growth.

Governments need to understand the significance of autonomy: policy autonomy results in comparatively good educational achievement, while management autonomy is crucial for research productivity and attractiveness. Governments have to give serious thought to whether the current autonomy of their institutions and the amount of public funding for each student is really enhancing the skills of their graduates and the calibre and volume of their research output.

University administration should ensure the appointment of Principal Officers and Governing Councils with reasonable consent, avoiding government reliance on public service circulars. Restoring autonomy can motivate educators, teachers, staff, and students, improving psychological satisfaction and performance. Poor working conditions discourage talented individuals from taking university appointments, especially in teaching.

Bibliography 

Abdelmalik, A. A. Nigeria’s Public University Industrial Unrest and Poverty of Sincerity: the struggle for the survival of Nigerian public Universities. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited. 2021.

Akinwumi, F. S and Olaniyan D. A. Analysis of University Autonomy in Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Management (AJEM). 9(2), 2020.

Bagudo, A. A. Educational Administration and Planning: The Experience of Nigerian Universities. A Valedictory Lecture in Honour of Professor Umar Tuni Muhammad 2022.

Jenkins, W. K. Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective London: Martin Robertson. 1978.

National Universities Commission. Nigerian Universities retrieved from http://www.sunnewsonline.com 2021    

Oshio, P. E. Autonomy and Management of Federal Universities Under the Universities Autonomy Act. National Universities Commission

Papahagi, M. and Stromholm, S. Academic Freedom and University Autonomy: Two perspectives. Bucharest, 1995.

Ross, M. G. The University-The Anatomy of Academic” New York, McGraw – Hill Books. 1976.

Sharkansky, L. Public Administration: Policy Making in Government Agencies, Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company. 1978.

University autonomy: Improving educational output Universities deliver more competent graduates and higher quality research if they are more autonomous and well-funded. Jo Ritzen Maastricht University, the Netherlands, and IZA, Germany. March 2016.

Uteli, T. I.  An Assessment of Autonomy and Freedom in Nigerian Universities. Journal of Public Administration, Finance and Law. Accessed on August 22,  https://doi.org/10.47743/jopafl-2021-22-08

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[1] Akinwumi, F. S and Olaniyan D. A. Analysis of University Autonomy in Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Management (AJEM). 9(2), 2020.

[2] Ross, M. G. The University-The Anatomy of Academic” New York, McGraw – Hill Books. 1976

[3] Papahagi, M. and Stromholm, S. Academic Freedom and University Autonomy: Two perspectives. Bucharest, 1995.

[4] Oshio, P. E. Autonomy and Management of Federal Universities Under the Universities Autonomy Act. National Universities Commission

[5] National Universities Commission. Nigerian Universities retrieved from http://www.sunnewsonline.com 2021

[6] Abdelmalik, A. A. Nigeria’s Public University Industrial Unrest and Poverty of Sincerity: the struggle for the survival of Nigerian public Universities. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello University Press Limited. 2021.

[7] University autonomy: Improving educational output Universities deliver more competent graduates and higher quality research if they are more autonomous and well-funded. Jo Ritzen Maastricht University, the Netherlands, and IZA, Germany. March 2016.

[8] Uteli, T. I.  An Assessment of Autonomy and Freedom in Nigerian Universities. Journal of Public Administration, Finance and Law. Accessed on August 22,  https://doi.org/10.47743/jopafl-2021-22-08

[9] Bagudo, A. A. Educational Administration and planning: The Experience of Nigerian Universities

[10] Akinwumi, S. F.  and Olaniyan, D. A. Analysis of University Autonomy in Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Management (AJEM). 9(2). 2020

[11] Bagudo, A. A. Educational Administration and Planning: The Experience of Nigerian Universities. A Valedictory Lecture in Honour of Professor Umar Tuni Muhammad 2022

[12] Sharkansky, L.,Public Administration: Policy Making in Government Agencies, Chicago: Rand McNally College Publishing Company. 1978.

[13] Jenkins, W. K. Policy Analysis: A Political and Organizational Perspective London: Martin Robertson. 1978