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Abstract

The study delves into the socio-philosophical dimensions of the development of tertiary education in Nigeria, considering its role in serving the common good. It underscores the importance of intellectual freedom, critical citizenship, and the pursuit of knowledge while reflecting on the evolving nature of education in an ever-changing world. Ultimately, this study reveals tertiary education as a bridge between generations, embodying humanity’s timeless quest for knowledge, enlightenment, and societal progress. The subsequent sections analyze the nexus between tertiary education and the state, particularly within the Nigerian context, with politics as a central intervening variable, and with, its philosophical perspectives are examined, highlighting the state’s role in promoting the common good, upholding autonomy, balancing state control and university freedom, considering education as a public good, shaping responsible citizens, and fostering democratic ideals. The study demonstrates that politics significantly influences resource allocation, policy dynamics, quality assurance, inclusivity, academic freedom, and global engagement in Nigerian tertiary education. Recognizing the impact of politicization on the quality of education, this study identifies challenges related to resource disparities, policy inconsistencies, erosion of quality assurance, inequitable access, suppression of academic freedom, and diminished global recognition. To enhance the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria, it is imperative to address these challenges by depoliticizing educational decision-making and prioritizing the long-term development of the educational system.

Keywords: Tertiary Education, Philosophy, Politics, Common Good, Intellectual Freedom, Nigerian Context, Quality Assurance, Academic Freedom, Inclusivity, Global Recognition.

Introduction

Tertiary education, at its philosophical core, embodies a profound journey towards intellectual autonomy, wisdom, and societal betterment. Drawing inspiration from the philosophies of Kant, Dewey, Nussbaum, Mill, Arendt, Plato, Aristotle, and Socrates, this study explores the multifaceted tapestry of tertiary education. It examines the delicate balance between vocational and liberal education, emphasizing individual freedom and societal responsibility. Hence, tertiary education, the apex of the educational pyramid, stands as a multifaceted tapestry encompassing the pursuit of knowledge, human development, and societal advancement. This foundational exploration delves into the philosophical underpinnings of tertiary education, emphasizing its essential role in the cultivation of wisdom, critical thinking, and the common good. Drawing from the philosophical perspectives of renowned thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Immanuel Kant, John Dewey, Martha Nussbaum, and John Stuart Mill, this study unveils the profound epistemic essence of tertiary education.

The philosophical journey unfolds in the context of Plato and Aristotle’s pursuit of truth and knowledge, which underpin the core mission of tertiary institutions, where intellectual exploration thrives. Socrates’ call for lifelong learning mirrors the imperative of continuous educational development, vital for adapting to an ever-changing world. The metaphorical “ivory tower” symbolizes the elevated realm of thought and intellectual inquiry present in research institutes and universities, resonating with Immanuel Kant’s vision of education as a path to intellectual autonomy. Furthermore, this journey is marked by a harmonious blend of vocational training and experiential learning, echoing John Dewey’s progressive approach, which emphasizes personal growth and societal enhancement. Martha Nussbaum’s capabilities approach injects an ethical dimension, highlighting tertiary education’s responsibility to equip individuals for the common good, reinforcing social responsibility.

Moving from philosophy to practice, this research analysis bridges the philosophical foundations of tertiary education with the political dynamics at play, with a focus on the Nigerian context. Politics, as an intervening variable, significantly impacts the relationship between tertiary education and the state in Nigeria, shaping various aspects of resource allocation, educational policies, quality assurance, inclusivity, academic freedom, and global engagement. In essence, the philosophical ideals of tertiary education intersect with the political realities of governance, revealing a complex interplay that influences the quality, accessibility, and societal impact of higher education in Nigeria. Hence, this study aims to unravel the intricate interconnections between philosophy, politics, and tertiary education in Nigeria, providing a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities that shape the educational landscape. By examining how philosophical ideals align with political actions, this research contributes to the ongoing discourse on enhancing the quality, equity, and relevance of tertiary education in Nigeria and beyond.

Philosophical Undercurrents of Tertiary Education

In examining the philosophical foundations of tertiary education, one encounters a rich tapestry of human development and societal progress. Plato and Aristotle’s (Barnett 1988; and Hamlyn 1996) pursuit of truth and knowledge underlie the core mission of tertiary institutions, serving as crucibles for intellectual exploration. Socrates’ advocacy for lifelong learning resonates with the imperative of continuous educational development, crucial for adapting to an ever-changing world (Barnett1994; Tesar & Locke, 1973). The metaphorical “ivory tower” symbolizes the elevated realm of thought and intellectual inquiry found in research institutes and universities. Immanuel Kant’s (See, Frankfurt, 1988) view of education as a path to intellectual autonomy aligns closely with the essence of tertiary education, emphasizing the cultivation of wisdom, critical thinking, and its transformative potential. This educational journey is further characterized by a harmonious blend of vocational training and experiential learning, reflecting John Dewey’s (Williams, 2011) progressive approach, which emphasizes personal growth and societal advancement (Cf, Williams, 2011). Martha Nussbaum’s capabilities approach introduces an ethical dimension, asserting that tertiary education should not only equip individuals with practical and reasoning skills but also instill a sense of duty towards the common good, reinforcing a focus on social responsibility (cf, Stonehouse, et al, 2011). Similarly, John Stuart Mill’s concept of intellectual freedom emphasizes the importance of free inquiry while respecting diverse cultural identities (Williams, 2011; Winch & Merriman, 1994).

Tertiary education plays a crucial role as a crucible for critical citizenship and self-development, as emphasized by these scholars (Mothersill, 1961; Standish, 1991; White, 1991). This role harmonizes with ongoing discussions about the interplay between government actions and policies within the educational sector. Furthermore, tertiary education serves as a bridge across generations, enabling intergenerational knowledge transfer and emphasizing the impact of quality education on a nation’s future. In essence, a philosophical exploration of tertiary education reveals its profound epistemic essence of wisdom, intellectual autonomy, and the common good (MacIntyre, 2013; Nietzsche, 1989). It navigates the tension between vocational and liberal education while balancing individual freedom with societal responsibility. This journey bridges past and future generations, embodying humanity’s timeless quest for knowledge, enlightenment, and societal progress. Regarding the relationship between tertiary education and the state, it is a complex and multifaceted dynamics, intertwined with philosophical implications that extend to the very core of societal values and aspirations.

The State’s Role in Promoting the Common Good: The state is often viewed as a custodian of the common good, responsible for the well-being of its citizens. Tertiary education serves as a vehicle through which the state fulfills its ethical duty to empower individuals with the knowledge, skills, and critical thinking abilities needed for societal advancement.

Autonomy and Intellectual Freedom: The autonomy of tertiary institutions is a critical element in their relationship with the state. According to Kneller (1971) and Frankfurt (1988), the state’s involvement should respect the intellectual freedom and autonomy of universities, allowing them to serve as bastions of free inquiry, diverse perspectives, and critical thinking (Barnett, 1988; Barnett, 1990).

The Balance between State Control and University Autonomy: The tension between state control and university autonomy underscores the delicate balance between government oversight and the independent pursuit of knowledge. The state’s role should be one of enabling and facilitating autonomy rather than stifling it.

Education as a Public Good: Education is often regarded as a public good, vital for the flourishing of both individuals and society. The state’s responsibility in providing access to quality tertiary education aligns with the philosophical principle that education should be accessible to all, regardless of socio-economic background.

The State’s Role in Shaping Responsible Citizens: The state plays a crucial role in nurturing responsible citizens who are not only equipped with knowledge but also possess the ethical grounding to contribute positively to society (Aviram, 1992; Barnett, 1988; Barnett, 1990). The states were accepted to develop along the availability of the natural resources and the mental capacity of the indigenes. The knowledge of the people should help the management of their human and natural resources that will shape the contents of their education and development of their manpower, in references to the constant availability of federal government’s budgetary allocations to the states.

Education and the Democratic Ideal: Education is intimately tied to the democratic ideal. Tertiary education serves as a crucible for critical citizenship, where individuals learn the skills and values necessary for active political engagement and meaningful public discourse. In a nutshell, the nexus of tertiary education and the state, when viewed through a philosophical lens, reveals a complex interplay of ethical responsibilities, autonomy, inclusivity, and the promotion of responsible citizenship. It underscores the state’s role in fostering the common good, while respecting the intellectual freedom and autonomy of tertiary institutions. Ultimately, this nexus embodies society’s values and aspirations, shaping the trajectory of both individuals and the collective whole.

The Nigerian Socio-philosophical Consciousness in the Establishment of Tertiary Education 

The origins of politics and higher education date back to the colonial era. During this time, there was a consensus among some elite individuals that, even if the colonial government were to establish full-fledged universities, certain critical questions needed answers (Kamola & Noori, 2014). These questions included how to ensure the academic quality of these institutions, where to source academic staff, how to guarantee international recognition of the degrees awarded, and whether there were enough African students with advanced level certificates to justify the significant investment required for such an ambitious undertaking (Muyiwa,  2015).

Additionally, there was a debate about whether each colony should have its own university or if there should be a single university serving all of British West Africa. If a single university was recommended, there were questions about its location and funding (Ekpiken & Ifere, 2015).In response to these questions, the Elliot Commission was formed in 1988 (Aladegbola & Jaiyeola, 2016). This commission embarked on an extensive journey across West Africa, gathering input from the local populations, colonial administrators, and individuals involved in higher education in the colonies. The commission ultimately presented two reports: The majority report suggested establishing university colleges in Nigeria and the Gold Coast (Ghana) and making significant improvements to higher education in Sierra Leone, closely linked with Fourah Bay College. A dissenting report criticized the idea of creating three university colleges, arguing that there might not be enough students in West Africa to support three universities or sufficient British academics to staff and fund them. Instead, this report recommended the immediate establishment of a single institution with university status, to serve all of British West Africa (Ibrahim, et al, 2021). This institution was proposed to be called the West African University College and be located in Ibadan, Nigeria.

The Elliot Commission followed the Asquith Commission, which was tasked with examining higher education in the colonies more broadly. The recommendations of the Asquith Commission were of a general nature and applied to all colonies. These recommendations included:

• The establishment of universities in areas lacking them, in the interest of higher education in the colonies.
• These universities should begin as university colleges and, while working toward full university status, establish special relationships with the University of London. This would help maintain the standards of London University while adapting the curriculum to local needs.
• The creation of an inter-university council for higher education to facilitate cooperation between British universities and the new colonial universities in terms of staffing.
• The allocation of a portion of funds under the Colonial Development and Welfare to specifically support the establishment of universities in the colonies (Okafor, 1971:88-89).

The Asquith Commission’s recommendation for establishing an inter-university council for higher education in the colonies is worth recalling. Sir William Hamilton Fyne led a delegation from this council, tasked with reevaluating the higher education needs in West Africa (Anyanwu, 2011). The primary dilemma for the delegation was determining whether there should be one or multiple universities. They concurred with the majority report from Elliot’s commission, suggesting that Achimota College could indeed be transformed into a university college. Consequently, the colonial office reversed its previous decision, considering the strong public demand in the Gold Coast (Ghana) for a university college and the willingness of Ghanaians to provide financial support (Ekundayo & Ajayi, 2009). Fortunately for Nigeria, due to its size, both the minority and majority reports of the Elliot commission supported establishing a university for Nigeria, with Ibadan as the chosen location, a decision also endorsed by the Fyne Delegation.

The establishment of Nigeria’s first university was the ultimate result of the Elliot commission’s work (Ekundayo & Ajayi, 2009). In January 1948, the Yaba Higher College staff and students were relocated to Ibadan to create the nucleus of the new university college, initially at a temporary site in Eleyele, Ibadan, using disused army huts. The University of Ibadan faced significant criticism from the public and press right from the start. Three major issues were apparent. Firstly, the principal lacked apparent qualifications or experience for the administrative responsibilities in Ibadan (Saint, et al 2003). Secondly, he had insufficient guidance regarding the nature of his new role. The university’s birth in 1948 occurred without a governing body, academic staff, students, and only a weak connection to an advisory body in London (Aiya, 2014). The principal had to decide when and where the college would open and its scope of work. Allegations of “racial discrimination” arose in the appointment of expatriate teachers, as British instructors received higher pay and were generally better trained. There was a belief in Nigerian circles that the college set high standards to hinder Nigerian advancement.

It is challenging to determine whether the criticisms and attacks on the university college’s administration were justified. Some speculated that the distrust stemmed from the fact that it was established by the colonial government, and the politics of the time fostered general mistrust of colonial authorities. Dr. M. Flanks, the first principal, did little to alleviate Nigerians’ concerns. For instance, the majority of the staff were British, and he did not prioritize aligning the college with Nigerian aspirations (Babatunde, et al 2020). Eventually, the Nigerian legislature, the general public, and the colonial office intervened. Dr. Kenneth Mellanby was replaced by Sir Sydney Phillipson as the chairman of the provisional council and D. I. T. Sanders as principal. Despite numerous criticisms against him, Dr. Mellanby deserves credit for nurturing Nigeria’s first university during its critical formative phase, gaining international recognition, and initiating the university’s most prominent feature today – its medical school. Dr. Saunders was succeeded by Dr. John Parry in 1956 (Aiya, 2014). During Dr. Parry’s tenure, the Institute of Education and the new Departments of Economics and Islamic Studies were established. His departure in 1960 paved the way for the first Nigerian principal of the college, Mr. Kenneth Dike. In 1962, Mr. Dike also assumed the role of the first Vice Chancellor when the institution concluded its fourteen-year affiliation with the University of London and began conferring its own degrees. Shortly after gaining independence in 1962, the National Universities Commission (NUC) was established to create guidelines for efficient and cost-effective university development (Ekundayo & Ajayi, 2009; Saint, et al 2003).Additionally, a National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) was founded by the United Nations in 1977 to oversee the development of technical education. Notably, as of 1983, there appeared to be no organized body responsible for coordinating colleges of education at the national level. Hence, the end of the Nigerian civil war on January 12, 1970, marked the start of a new decade characterized by significant federal government involvement, leading to substantial growth at all educational levels and across various types of educational institutions. By the end of the Nigerian civil war in 1970, the country already boasted five fully established universities.

The Institution of the First Five Universities

Nigeria’s higher education landscape was initially marked by the presence of five key universities. These included the federal government-owned Universities of Ibadan and Lagos, Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, owned by the Northern regional government (later the Northern States), the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) in Ile-Ife, owned by the western region (later Western States), and the University of Nigeria, owned by the Eastern region (later jointly owned by the East Central and South Eastern states).However, the distribution of universities in Nigeria seemed to be influenced by political factors, particularly given the imbalance observed until 1971, with most universities situated in the southern part of the country. This imbalance was partly a result of the political turmoil that followed soon after Nigeria gained independence, culminating in a 30-month civil war. As noted by Kosemani (1982: 6), the issue of educational inequality may have contributed to the tension and suspicion during the early post-independence years. Addressing this educational imbalance, particularly between the North and South and among different ethnic groups, became a sensitive political matter with significant implications for national unity (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu 2011). Before 1975, there were six universities in Nigeria, with five in the South and one in the North. Out of the five in the South, four were located in the Western region, underscoring a clear geographical disparity in the establishment of higher educational institutions in the country.

Subsequently, Nigeria expanded its higher education system, ushering in a second generation of universities, which included the University of Port Harcourt, Calabar, Maiduguri, Jos, Bayero in Kano, Usman Dan-Fodio in Sokoto, and Ilorin. These universities played a crucial role in addressing educational disparities. In parallel, third-generation universities were established in educationally less developed states. These institutions aimed to enhance the secondary education foundation in these regions through remedial programs and create alternative, accelerated pathways for manpower development. The schools of basic/advanced/preliminary studies offered two distinct programs to support these objectives (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu, 2011).

The Remedia Education and Pre-degree Section

The remedial section is primarily focused on enhancing the academic qualifications of students holding a school certificate. The program’s primary objective is to address the deficiencies in their secondary education foundation, thereby increasing their likelihood of securing admission to higher education institutions, aligning with the goals outlined in the third development plan. The Pre-degree Program, on the other hand, is a specialized component of the School of Basic Studies. Its purpose is to prepare individuals who possess a school certificate for direct entry into universities

The Schools of Basic Studies/Advanced/Preliminary Studies

In response to the issue of educational inequality across different regions of the country, the federal government of Nigeria, as outlined in the Third Development Plan from 1975 to 1980, designated certain states as educationally less developed while others were deemed educationally advantaged. In this plan (Volume 1:249), the government articulated its commitment to improving the qualifications of students in educationally disadvantaged states, with the aim of making them eligible for university admission (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu, 2011). One of the measures taken to address this situation was the establishment of schools of basic, advanced, and preliminary studies in the regions designated as educationally backward. These schools were set up in all ten Northern states, as well as in Rivers, Cross River, and Lagos States. Four of these regions were established before the civil war, and three were located in the southern part of the country (Muyiwa, 2015; Ekpiken & Ifere, 2015). These initiatives were integral to political strategies aimed at rectifying educational imbalances in Nigeria.

The war and its aftermath highlighted the educational backwardness of specific states, such as Lagos, Rivers, Cross River, and many Northern states. It became evident that these regions required special educational attention. Consequently, both federal and state governments adopted policy objectives aimed at expanding educational opportunities to increase access to all levels of education. These policies encompassed a range of measures, including:

• Establishing schools of basic studies in educationally backward states.
• Initiating nomadic education programs in the North.
• Implementing a quota system for university admissions.
• Mandating states to have their own schools.
• Launching the Universal Primary Education (UPE) scheme in 1976.
• Creating unity secondary schools by local communities.
• Geographically dispersing federal institutions.
• Introducing the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB).
• Fostering the establishment of universities.
• Continuing with measures such as the introduction of JAMB.

In Nigeria, the first effort to address the educational needs of the migrant population began in 1970. However, it wasn’t until 1982 that official support was given to the program. On September 8, 1980, on the designated National Literacy Day, the Ministry of Education recognized women and nomads as groups that had suffered educational deprivation and other social disadvantages in Nigerian society. Nomadic Fulani, as described by Dogo-Fai (1988:2), were seen as conservative, educationally disadvantaged, highly mobile, isolated, and resistant to change. A compensatory scheme was introduced to cater to the educational needs of the nomadic Fulani. This scheme aimed to address the challenges faced by nomadic herdsmen, which are common to such populations worldwide (Aladegbola & Jaiyeola, 2016).At the formal launch of the program in Plateau, Col Onoja, the state governor, expressed the belief that the new opportunities would enhance, rather than undermine, the nomadic population’s educational foundation. He emphasized that nomads would no longer be an educationally disadvantaged group within the state. Similarly, the commissioner of education in Borno State stressed that the scheme aimed to make education accessible to the nomads. Ultimately, providing education for nomads would empower them to understand their rights and responsibilities within the broader Nigerian society. It’s important to note that, at present, the nomadic education scheme is limited to primary education.

Quota System of Admission into Higher Institutions of Learning

The federal government categorized states as either educationally advanced or educationally less developed. This classification is evident in the 1980 Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) admission guidelines for Nigerian universities. According to these guidelines (JAMB/ADM/66, Vol. II, 1985:2), out of the nineteen states, twelve were designated as educationally less developed. These states included Kaduna, Kano, Lagos, Niger, Plateau, Rivers, and Sokoto, with nine of them located in the Northern region. This classification highlights a regional disparity between the North and the South. This political decision aimed to promote national unity, political stability, and equal educational opportunities, with the intention of resolving conflicts. The same political choice also led to the implementation of the quota system for admissions into federal educational institutions at both secondary and tertiary education levels in 1977 (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu, 2011). This system was introduced to address the issue of geographical imbalance in admissions to Nigerian universities. The introduction of the quota system for university admissions sought to foster national unity, political stability, and economic development, particularly in terms of producing a well-distributed workforce

State Takeover of Schools

The takeover of schools in the early 1970s was undertaken with the primary objective of ensuring that no child would be deprived of education due to factors such as race, ethnicity, social status, religion, state of origin, gender, or physical disability. Additionally, this move aimed to enable the government to establish and maintain consistent educational standards. As a result of this school takeover, the state assumed responsibility for providing education to its citizens at the primary and secondary levels. Schools transitioned into institutions of public welfare (Aiya, 2014; Nwafor & Joseph, 2021).The government’s assumption of control over schools led to the implementation of a standardized curriculum across various states, linguistic divisions, subcultural groups, and previously underserved regions. This standardization contributed to increased access to education, rectifying the previously uneven distribution of educational opportunities.

Government Control of Education

As a result, the doubts and suspicions harbored by non-Christians regarding Western education had been dispelled. This had a significant consequence, as it resulted in the widespread acceptance of Western education, even in regions like the Muslim North. The Muslim North had previously accused colonial administrators of neglecting the provision of both high-quality and adequate education, particularly in that region. However, this exposure to secular education demonstrated a shift in this perception (Ekundayo & Ajayi, 2009; Saint, et al, 2003).

The Universal Primary Education

Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Nigeria has its historical roots, with significant developments occurring over the years. In 1955, the Action Group government in the western region initiated a UPE program, followed by a similar experiment by the NCNC in the eastern region in 1957 (Muyiwa, 2015; Ekpiken & Ifere, 2015). The Action Group’s UPE experiment in the western region, despite its shortcomings, had a significant positive impact on increasing enrollment. However, in areas where political issues and the actions of the Catholic mission were at play, the experiment faced challenges and ultimately failed. Subsequently, in 1970, after the government takeover of schools, the federal government introduced the Universal Free Primary Education (UPE) in 1976. This particular step by the federal government gave deeper meaning to the government’s commitment to democratic education and the enhancement of equal educational opportunities, as outlined in the National Policy on Education. The overarching goal was to create “a land of brightness and full opportunities for all citizens.” As a result of the UPE program, every corner of Nigeria now boasts at least one primary school, ensuring broad access to primary education across the nation (Muyiwa, 2015; Ekpiken & Ifere, 2015).

The Establishment of Unity Secondary Schools

The early 1960s witnessed the presence of two colleges known as King and Queen’s College in Lagos under the federal government. Admission into these colleges was regulated by a quota system. The establishment of these two unity schools aimed to foster national unity and integration and reduce educational imbalances at the post-primary level across the country. The endeavor to address educational imbalances in Nigeria requires an examination of the intersection between politics and higher education. Various governments in Nigeria, whether federal or state, military or civilian, have continually strived to improve education, recognizing that it is a crucial driver of development. This emphasis on education is driven by the understanding that without education, progress remains unattainable. The civil war itself was a product of mistrust among citizens, a lack of shared understanding of the national goals, and the fear of domination by specific groups (Muyiwa, 2015; Ekpiken & Ifere, 2015).

In Nigeria, politicians, both military and civilian, at both federal and state levels, have frequently manipulated the education system to bolster their political standing and legitimacy. During the brief Second Republic, particularly in the southern states, various governments justified the proliferation of higher education institutions as a way to democratize education (Aladegbola & Jaiyeola, 2016).For instance, in Imo State, the establishment of Imo State University was seen as an attempt by Sam Mbakwe to fulfill an electoral campaign promise. In Rivers State, the transformation of the Rivers State College of Science and Technology into a university was tied to Melford Okilo’s electoral success in 1979. Similarly, the Unity Party of Nigeria established state universities in Bendel (now Delta and Edo States) and Ondo as part of their political commitments. During this period, Anambra State University was also established. In the Northern region, where the educational foundation was weaker, the federal government focused more on expanding access to higher education (Ibrahim et al 2021; Anyanwu, 2011).

However, the military takeover in 1983 led to the scaling back of Bendel State University, with the closure of the school of medicine and the transfer of education students to Abraka, which became the faculty of education. The merger of Federal Universities of Technology in Bauchi and Makurdi with the University of Jos, Yola with Maiduguri, and Abeokuta with Lagos in 1984 illustrates that political considerations rather than educational needs influenced the establishment of these institutions. The introduction of universities of technology in Minna, Yola, Bauchi, and Makurdi, where the educational infrastructure was weaker than in other regions like Owerri, Abeokuta, and Akure, underscores the role of political manipulation (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu. 2011).The core issue facing higher education in Nigeria today is largely political and doesn’t consider the economic implications of these actions. Even the annual admissions to Nigerian universities highlight the need for more and larger institutions in the South. For instance, in the 1984/1985 Joint Admission and Matriculation Board data, the South had a significantly higher number of applicants and admissions compared to the North. The difference in applicants between the South and North over three years (1984/1985, 1985/1986, and 1986/1987) was substantial, favoring the South (Ibrahim, et al, 2021; Anyanwu, 2011; Ekundayo & Ajayi, 2009; Saint et al 2003). The existence of three full-fledged universities of technology in Owerri, Minna, and Akure cannot be economically justified, considering their student intake and the current economic challenges in the country. To optimize resources, all candidates in these three universities could be consolidated into one institution.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the philosophical underpinnings of tertiary education reveal its profound significance as a catalyst for human development and societal progress. Drawing inspiration from thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Immanuel Kant, John Dewey, Martha Nussbaum, and John Stuart Mill, tertiary education embodies the pursuit of truth, intellectual autonomy, wisdom, and critical thinking. It navigates the fine balance between vocational and liberal education while instilling a sense of social responsibility and fostering responsible citizenship. Ultimately, it serves as a bridge across generations, uniting past and future in the timeless quest for knowledge, enlightenment, and societal advancement. The relationship between tertiary education and the state is a multifaceted interplay of ethical responsibilities, autonomy, inclusivity, and the promotion of responsible citizenship. The state’s role in promoting the common good, respecting autonomy and intellectual freedom, balancing state control and university autonomy, providing education as a public good, shaping responsible citizens, and upholding the democratic ideal is crucial for fostering societal advancement and individual growth.

However, in the Nigerian context, politics emerges as a prominent intervening variable, significantly impacting the quality of tertiary education. The politicization of resource allocation, policy inconsistencies, quality assurance mechanisms, inclusivity and equity, academic freedom, and international relations can lead to chronic underfunding, disruptions in educational policies, compromised academic quality, unequal access, and suppression of intellectual inquiry. As a result, the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria is susceptible to political influence, affecting the nation’s educational development and global standing. Understanding the implications of politics in the relationship between tertiary education and the state is essential for addressing the challenges and opportunities facing Nigerian tertiary institutions. It highlights the need for policies that prioritize the common good, academic autonomy, and quality education while acknowledging the impact of political decisions on the nation’s intellectual and societal progress.

Recommendations

Based on the analysis of the relationship between tertiary education and the state, particularly in the context of Nigeria, and recognizing the impact of politics, the following recommendations are proposed to improve the quality and effectiveness of tertiary education:

• Depoliticize Resource Allocation: It is crucial to separate political considerations from resource allocation for tertiary education. Budget decisions should be based on the educational needs and priorities of the nation rather than political motives. Adequate and consistent funding is essential to provide modern infrastructure, up-to-date facilities, and access to educational resources.
• Establish Stable Educational Policies: The frequent changes in educational policies driven by political transitions disrupt the continuity and coherence of tertiary education. Policymakers should work toward establishing stable and long-term educational policies that align with the nation’s long-term educational goals. Consistency in policies is vital for maintaining academic standards and objectives.
• Safeguard Quality Assurance: Regulatory bodies responsible for maintaining academic standards should be insulated from political interference. Quality assurance mechanisms should operate independently and impartially to ensure that institutions meet international academic standards and produce graduates with the necessary skills and knowledge.
• Prioritize Inclusivity and Equity: Affirmative action measures to promote access for marginalized groups should be designed and implemented with a focus on inclusivity and equity. These policies should be free from political manipulation to ensure that education serves as a means of social mobility for all Nigerians.
• Protect Academic Freedom: Academic freedom is essential for intellectual inquiry, critical thinking, and innovation within universities. Government interference in academic matters should be minimized to allow scholars and institutions to engage in open inquiry and produce groundbreaking research.
• Foster International Collaboration: Political decisions regarding international collaborations and the recognition of Nigerian qualifications should be made with a view to enhancing the global standing of Nigerian universities. Encouraging international engagement and promoting the recognition of Nigerian degrees can expand the contributions of Nigerian institutions to the global academic community.
• Promote Ethical Leadership: Ethical leadership within educational institutions and among policymakers is essential to ensure that politics serves the greater good of education. Leaders should prioritize the quality and integrity of tertiary education over political gain.
• Engage Stakeholders: Collaboration and dialogue among government agencies, educational institutions, students, teachers, and other stakeholders can help formulate and implement policies that prioritize the quality and accessibility of tertiary education while minimizing political influence.
• Monitor and Evaluate Policies: Regular monitoring and evaluation of educational policies can help identify the impact of politics on the quality of tertiary education. These assessments can inform adjustments to policies and practices to better align with educational goals.
• Public Awareness and Advocacy: Raising public awareness about the impact of politics on tertiary education can lead to informed public opinion and advocacy for educational reforms. Informed citizens can influence policymakers to prioritize education over political interests.

By implementing these recommendations, Nigeria can work towards depoliticizing tertiary education, ensuring quality, equity, and inclusivity, and fostering an environment where educational institutions can fulfill their role as centers of intellectual exploration and societal progress.

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Abstract

Nigerian tertiary education today exhibits symptoms of serious moral malaise. Motivated by the pernicious reality of moral degradation in Nigeria tertiary education, the study is intrigued by the need for an urgent change of behaviour and character. The study is aimed at highlighting the contemporary immoral practices found in the Nigerian tertiary education using the philosophical research method. It explored the notions of education, tertiary education, moral and immoral practices. The study identified that the absence of moral studies in our educational system has contributed to high incidents of violence, unrest, crime, and other unwholesome behavior found among students and teachers. It concluded by recommending that awards of excellence should be given to outstanding individuals with moral excellence and other worthy values such as human integrity, hard work, dignity, selfless service, self-reliance, dedication to duty, and others as this will help in discouraging immorality and encouraging good works. 

Introduction

Education is as old as humanity. Over time, it has become a magic wand that can shape and mould people to acceptable standard. It has been argued that it is useful, desirable and important for the survival of the human race. It is useful because without it, people would engage in careless acceptance of appearances, and society would be placed on a dizzy slope of chaos and extinction. What society is, today, and what it will become tomorrow, can be traced to the way its citizens have been educated. Without education, an individual cannot realize his potentiality and society will not progress. Unless a person is educated, he will not be able to adjust himself to the human world (socially, morally, economically, culturally, etc.). This is unarguably true because it is through education that every society orients its young generation in their worthwhile and desirable values and culture. The young through that are equipped with relevant knowledge, information and competencies that will enable them function well in the society and develop it. Hence, whatever happens to the educational system resonates to all facets and aspect of a given society (Asogwa, 2020). In other words, if the educational system is good, the society becomes good and is able to develop positively, but if the educational system is bad or inept, the society misses its set goals and therefore can hardly be a great or developed nation.

It is the recognition of this importance that the international community and governments all over the world (Nigeria inclusive) made commitments for its citizens to have access to education. The said commitments usually go along with comprehensive and clear-cut policies or roadmaps that will direct and guide the vision of attaining a qualitative and functional education. It is in line with this that Nigeria in her National Policy on Education (NPE, 2014) described education as an instrument “par excellence” for effecting national development. Thus, by implication, education has a multi-dimensional role to play for Nigeria: to create good and effective citizens, citizens who will accept the traditional values and protect the “Nigerian way of life”; to provide gainful employment opportunities for Nigerians and thirdly for personal development of liberating individual citizens from the bond of ignorance and to prepare them to be able to maximize their intellectual, emotional, moral and social development. However, despite the fact that education is described or seen as a catalyst for effective development in the country, the sector is bedeviled with myriads of crises ranging from insufficient quality manpower, poor funding, overcrowded, dilapidated and ill equipped schools and most importantly immoral practices especially in the tertiary institutions. It is sad to note that tertiary education have not paid adequate attention to issues that border on the moral and spiritual development. Violent demonstrations, cultism, drug abuse, prostitution, nudity, gambling, tribalism, examination malpractice and various acts of indiscipline have become pervasive in the Nigerian tertiary educational system. There is hardly any academic session that tertiary education institutions in the country do not experience various forms of immoral activities done by teachers and students.

Morality ought to be maintained in our tertiary educational institutions as a state of immorality can never allow the attainment of educational goals/objectives. Therefore, it is on this basis that this paper is structured to examine the immoral practices in contemporary tertiary education system and in order to achieve its aim, a conceptual analysis of such concepts as education, morality, moral and immoral practice is given to strengthen the discussion.

Education

A definition of the term “education” that will satisfy everybody is probably impossible. Consider, however, the following definitions:

• Education is preparation for life. It is the acquisition of such knowledge and skills that will help the individual earn his livelihood and find a place in the adult society.
• Education is the sum total of processes by means of which a community or social groups whether small or large transmits its acquired power and aims to the younger generation with a view to securing its own continuous existence and growth (Encyclopedia Britannica).
• Education comprises organized and sustained communications designed to bring about learning (UNESCO, 1990).

From whatever angle we want to look at the term. Education can be equated with learning. We learn many things from the day we are born till the day we join our ancestors in the grave. We learn a lot from our ancestors – (moral transmission) and we pass on the same knowledge to coming generations.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education, higher education, further education, post-secondary education, third or last stage of formal education are synonymously used to refer to education pursued at any post-secondary educational institution bearing the name of university, college, institute or any other nomenclature.

Three categories of university exist in Nigeria. They are federal, state and private universities. Universities all over the world are accepted as the citadel of knowledge and human resource development. The Nigerian university system sprang out of the need for the development of high-level manpower to take the challenges of nation building after independence. It was/is the hope of the people that the universities shall produce the right type of manpower in sufficient quantity and quality for the transformation of the nation from a developing country to a developed one (Fadipe, 2000).

The Nigerian university system is increasingly challenged with many complex problems. There is a general outcry that the standard of education is falling and morals are failing. Some persons blame students for this apparent decline in quality of education and moral values. A thoughtful few think that they are due to the nature of changes in all directions such as in government policies, schools administrative policies, among others. Some blame the lecturers for the woes in our universities claiming that they are not as devoted and dedicated to the cause of education as their predecessors. Some blame parents and their children, while others blame government for unattractive condition of service and poor school facilities.

Moral and Immoral Practices

Moral Practices: Moral practices are those practices that follow or are in line with the social norms and such actions are acceptable to the public. It can also be seen as practices that are characterized by honesty, fairness and equity in interpersonal, professional and in research and scholarly activities. Moral practices respect the dignity, diversity and rights of individuals and groups of people. Some examples of ethical practices include: obeying rules and regulations, taking responsibility, being accountable, upholding trust, having respect, etc. They are the complete opposite of unethical practices.

Immoral Practices: Immoral practices are those actions that are against or not in line with social norms or acts that are considered unacceptable to the public. It can also be seen as an action that lacks moral principles; unwilling to adhere to proper rules of conduct or an action that falls outside of what is considered morally right or proper for a person, group or organization. Some examples of immoral practices include: lying, insincerity, verbal harassment/abuse, violence, theft/embezzlement, sexual harassment, corrupt practices, etc. They are the complete opposite of ethical practices.

Cotemporary Immoral Practices in Tertiary Education

The ill and vices of the society have become regular features in our life and have not only eaten deep into the fabrics of our society, they have taken their toll on students in various educational institutions. Agimon (2015) avows that various shades of immorality, vices, unethical practices ranging from tribalism, licentiousness, violent demonstration, thuggery, cultism, abortion, bribery and corruption, sycophancy, selfism, avarice, sabotage, oppression, fraud, apathy to work, sexual harassment, drug abuse, sexual permissiveness and so on are now found in our tertiary institutions. Let us take a closer look at some of them.

Truancy: This is irregular attendance in school or classes with many factors within or outside the school building, peer group influence, teacher method of teaching or severe discipline in some schools can lead to truancy. Hornby (2010), agree with the foregoing when he posits that truancy is the practice of staying away from school without profession. Some truancy factors outside the school may include poverty where the child might need to feed himself/herself, engage in labor to raised money, parenting/guarding methods of discipline, security among others. Truancy is one of the major anti-social disciplinary problems among school students in Nigeria.

Absenteeism: Hornby (2010) sees absenteeism as an act of being frequently away from work or school, especially without good reasons. This may result from the type of leadership obtained in a school. The school exercise greater control over students and may lead students to frustration, if there is insufficient supply of school materials and facilities such as food, water, toilet facilities which may lead to absenteeism or rebellion against authorities. If a student has formed destructive habit, be is also likely to consistently be absent or revolt against authority unaware of the consequences of his actions. Teachers may exhibit a negative attitude towards classroom instruction by employing unsuitable resources and content. This can lead to students feeling dissatisfied and frustrated with their schoolwork, thus causing them to be absent. Absenteeism and truancy have a negative impact on a child’s examination performance. When a child is absent from class, they miss out on important topics that are discussed. This can lead to the child engaging in disruptive behavior during exams, such as making noise or cheating.

Indecent Dressing: Girls in Nigerian educational institutions wear dresses that expose their laps, tummy, breasts and other delicate parts. Most of them dress half naked, putting on sexy dresses that expose them to indecent assaults, such as topless, backless, jumpers, hot pants, miniskirts, body hog, tight fitting, sleeveless cloths, that expose their entire body contours. While putting on the above clothes, they walk swinging their buttocks dangling their breasts that are uncovered and in some cases with transparent clothes without brazier – an appearance that debases womanhood (Njoku, 2004). The boys expose their chest, belly and under wears through a mode of dressing they call “sagging”. Dressing pattern seen in our various educational institutions is a complete offense to public sensibilities.

Sexual Permissiveness: The present trend of licentiousness among our youths and adults is a source of concern. The rate at which Nigeria is being flooded by pornographic materials these days is quite intriguing. Most of our bookshops, supermarkets, tourist and holiday resorts, cinema houses and very remarkable bus stations, now stink with sexually lascivious writings, cartons, video tapes and pictures of nude women in highly beguiling postures. The inordinate and senseless quest for materialism on the part of the female folks, the evil concupiscence and unbridled appetite for women on the part of the men are all necessary and sufficient conditions for sexual permissiveness which breeds other forms of social-ethical vices such as armed robbery, murder, abortion, drug trafficking, drunkenness, drug addiction, juvenile delinquency and prostitution.

In our educational institutions, prostitution is now rampant as young girls have seen it as the most lucrative business (Ezeh, 2015). Most girls live very big in school, pay their school fees, buy text books and handouts and sort lecturers for better result with money realized from illicit business – prostitution. They are very much patronized by wealthy businessmen, politicians, and other well to do individuals who come to school with their flashy cars to pick them based on an agreed price. Some female students have lost their lives in the process by being used for rituals by unscrupulous men in the society.

Examination Malpractices: Any act of wrong doing or neglect that contravenes the rules of acceptable practice before, during and after an examination by anybody in any way according to Awusaku and Ugwulebo (2013) is examination malpractice. In recent times, most students in Nigerian higher institutions hold strongly to their belief that they can only scale through in their academic endeavors by examination malpractice (Expo) or by paying to ensure they have good grades. This may not be far from the reason underlying rampant educational malpractices in our educational institutions. Examination malpractice among students ranges from bringing in foreign materials such as textbooks, notebooks, pieces of paper with notes made on them, retrieval or substitution of re-worked scripts long after the examination is over, impersonation, super prints (writing on palms, thighs/laps, handkerchiefs, dresses, etc.) mutual copying and cooperation in the examination hall, use of phones, text messages for examination and paying for the upgrade of their scores or alteration of marks on the computer.

Bribery, Corruption and Materialism: A bribe is something given or promised to somebody in order to influence or persuade him (often to do something wrong) in favour of the giver. On the other hand, corruption is a derivative of the word “corrupt” meaning actions of persons which are immoral, depraved and dishonest especially through offering and accepting of bribes. Materialism can be seen as the undue attachment of much value to material things, especially wealth and luxury at the expense of spiritual things or moral values. The cultivation of the above named evil habits has led to the loss of sense of the Holy from the mind and sensibility, leaving a void which is one of our most cruel wounds (Esomonu, 1981).

Treasury looting, dishonesty, and avarice have come to be appreciated in our society as a norm and circumscribed as smartness. Unmasking the ugly scenario, Omoregbe (1993:xi) lamented that “the situation has degenerated to such an extent that anybody who finds himself in a position to enrich himself through fraudulent and corrupt practices but refuses to do so is regarded as a fool and scorned by his friends and especially his relations. Many Nigerians especially now believe that there is nothing wrong in paying or accepting bribe to upgrade students result or stealing the money belonging to the institution or any large organization if one is lucky to find oneself in a position to do so without being caught.

Stealing: This is the taking/removal of another person’s property without his/her permission. The socio-economic environment including status of parents, home background and a natural tendency to steal is responsible for this among students. The conduct is mostly influenced by peer group pressure, the value structure of the society, such as the get rich quick syndrome in Nigeria has led many young people to the false conviction that there is no need to pursue life course with appropriate hard work and consequent success. Some parents spoil their children by exhibiting highly permissive behavior. They allow children to have everything on demand and task themselves to overdo what they believed is their responsibility. This attitude encourages children to interpret any form of lack as hardship and frustration to the extent of justifying their removal of other people’s property. The social vices in school is a reflection of what is going on in the society for example there are lot of cases of armed robbery/bandits, kidnapping among others that have send many people to their early graves, loss of properties and a sense of insecurity among Nigerians.

Tribalism: Nigeria is blessed with so many ethnic groups which according to many should be a means of integration therefore leading to national development. This has rather become a catalyst for national disintegration. In the face of the earth, Nigerians are the most tribal people and this has become a menace to our society. In foreign countries, a person from Chicago or Michigan does not see himself as such but rather sees himself first as an American. This problem of tribe is beginning to have an embarrassing and repulsive odour and it has hampered on our social, economic and political life, thereby causing social injustice and upholding mediocrity in our national agenda. In some of our educational institutions, fellow Nigerians suffer various forms of discrimination in violation of their civil and constitutional rights. Nigerians in some parts of the country or away from their own state are practically treated as foreigners in their own country. Under such devices as “State of Origin”, “Other States”, “Indigenes of the State”, “Sons of the Soil”, hideous form of tribal discrimination and prejudice have been practiced to the detriment of nation-building and Nigerian unity. Tribalism has assumed higher dimension of awfulness with the activities of some tribal chauvinistic politicians and academics who often whip-up sentiments detrimental to our collective interests. Lewis in Iwe (1991:42) puts it thus: “… in that unfortunate country, the educated were even more tribalistic than the uneducated, with some of the nastiest incidents occurring inside the educational institutions”.

Moral Decay in Nigerian Educational System: What is the cause?

The origins of immorality in the Nigerian school system are complex, arising from a confluence of factors including corruption and lack of accountability, economic adversity, societal expectations, insufficient moral teaching, and peer influence. Here is a detailed analysis of these causes:

Corruption and absence of accountability: The Nigerian educational system is plagued by widespread corruption, which is evident in several behaviors like bribery, embezzlement, and the act of students paying lecturers for better results, commonly known as “sorting” (Omonijo Nnedum & Uche, 2013). The prevalence of corruption is intensified by the inadequate implementation of measures designed to prevent unethical conduct, resulting in a climate of impunity within educational establishments.

Economic adversity: The presence of economic difficulties significantly contributes to the promotion of unethical behavior inside the educational system. Numerous students and educators experience significant financial burdens, which may compel them to resort to unethical behaviors, such as cheating on exams or engaging in extortion, in order to sustain their livelihoods (Ijaiya, Alabi, & Fasasi, 2011). Furthermore, the lack of sufficient finance for educational institutions leads to substandard facilities and insufficient resources, which worsens the problem (Ijaiya et al., 2011).

Societal pressures and erosion of moral values: Societal pressures and the degradation of moral ideals lead to the prevalence of immorality in schools. The cultural emphasis on academic achievement frequently compels students to engage in cheating and other unethical actions in order to fulfill expectations (Omotosho, 2012). Moreover, the erosion of traditional African values, along with the impact of Western culture, has undermined the ethical foundation of society, resulting in a rise in occurrences of immorality such as sexual harassment and cultism (Omotosho, 2012).

Insufficient Moral and Civic Education: The curriculum’s failure to prioritize moral and civic education results in pupils lacking a solid ethical basis, rendering them more prone to engaging in unethical acts (Osakwe, 2012). In addition, the lack of exemplary figures within the educational system, including educators who may themselves participate in unethical activities, contributes to the continuation of immoral conduct among students (Osakwe, 2012).

Peer pressure and influence: Peer pressure is a major contributing factor to immorality in Nigerian schools. Secret cults and gangs at educational institutions expose students to detrimental effects, fostering engagement in behaviors such as substance misuse, aggression, and academic dishonesty (Olutola & Olatunde, 2015). Conforming to specific social circles frequently supersedes individual principles, resulting in unethical choices.

The Way Forward

Appointment: It is unfortunate that, it is only in the education sector that all comers’ affairs usually become the order of day; lawyers manage the ministry of justice, medical doctors manage the ministry of health, but anybody can manage education; a round peg in a square hole. It is the suggestion of Ekundayo (2019), that government should always appoint an expert as a leader of our tertiary educational system and not a political party lackey to manage it, because in the past, Nigeria’s tertiary education system had fared better under experts as leaders, who earned their stripes through the system.

Teacher’s welfare: There is no gainsaying the fact, that a good number of Nigeria teachers, are frustrated, despondent, distressed and depressed because of poor salaries and poor welfare packages. Our teachers today seem demotivated and demoralized. It is only good welfare packages and regular payments of salaries that can incentivize them to put in their best and by extension raise the quality of education in Nigeria.

Code of Ethics: A code of ethics is an important management tool which can positively shape the culture of our institutions and transform the declining status. Therefore, strict adherence to the ethics of teaching profession should be maintained. Code of ethics should be used to help prevent immoral practices in its entire ramifications why alerting staff on the conduct that could appear immoral.  Any negative tendency should not be given any chance to manifest in the system. Every citizen needs to have change in attitudes, behaviour and mindset concerning immorality and material wealth which are perishable and inculcate the spirit of contentment, thereby acting based on the ethical codes of conducts outlined in the tertiary institutions.

Remuneration: In addition, moral excellence and other worthy values such as human integrity, hard work, dignity, selfless service, self-reliance, dedication to duty, and others should be encouraged. Awards of excellence should be given to outstanding individuals to encourage good works.

Conclusion

The argument we have tried to sustain in this paper is that immoral practices has marred tertiary education in Nigeria. It is observed that immorality has weakened the tertiary educational system leading to low efficiency, low quality service delivery, etc. We strongly believe that the tertiary educational system is one of the systems that is greatly committed in human capital development and human development is the highest development that is capable of affecting every other development positively. Therefore, the need for moral education cannot be overemphasized given that it will cultivate genuine values in us that will nurture and foster our spirit of patriotism, pride for our nation, loyalty and love for our country. Moral education will enable the individuals to acquire the right attitudes that engender growth. It will make individuals to subdue their environment and fully participate in the affairs of the society. This is because if the person is well and morally trained, the person will have the sky as the starting point when it comes to the possession of knowledge.

References

Agimon, C. V. (2015). An introduction to sociology of education. World Make GLN.

Asogwa, T.E. (2020). Re-thinking teacher education for national development in Nigeria.  Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy, 31(1), 108-115.

Awusaku, C.U. & Ugwulebo, K.C. (2013). The role of the church in ensuring corruption free educational system in Nigeria. In T.I. Okere (ed.) Functionality of education in contemporary Nigeria. Proceedings of the international symposium organized by whelan research academy. Gabtony Prints Ltd

Ekundayo, O.O.S. (2019). Education in Nigeria is a Mess. www.theconversation.com

Ezeh, J. (2015). Status quo of Youth Morality in the 21st Century. The Treasure Newsletter, 1, 12-14

Fadipe, S. (2000). Quality of university education in Nigeria. www.universityedu.org.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2014). National policy on education (6^th Ed.). Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council.

Hornby, A.S. (2010). Oxford advanced learners dictionary. Oxford University Press

Ijaiya, N. Y. S., Alabi, A. T., & Fasasi, Y. A. (2011). Exam malpractice in Nigeria: Causes and effects on national development. African Journal of Educational Management, 12(2), 1-9.

Iwe, S.N. (1991). Socio-Ethical issues in Nigeria. Pacific Publishers

Njoku, C.U. (2004). Contemporary social problems. Federal Polytechnic Nekede Press

Olutola, A. T., & Olatunde, F. (2015). Causes and effects of cultism in tertiary institutions in Nigeria: A review of the literature. International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Research, 3(1), 1-7.

Omonijo, D. O., Nnedum, O. A. U., & Uche, O. O. C. (2013). Unethical practices in the Nigerian educational system: Implications for national development. European Journal of Educational Studies, 5(1), 16-27.

Omoregbe, J. (1993). Ethics: A systematic and historical study. Joja Education Research and Publishers.

Omotosho, J. A. (2012). The role of moral and character education in the sustainable transformation of the Nigerian educational system. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 3(15), 45-51.

Osakwe, R. N. (2012). Moral education in Nigerian secondary schools: A realistic approach. Academic Research International, 2(1), 341-346.

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Abstract

Many years after the emergence of the new educational system (the 6 – 3 – 3 – 4 system of education), Nigeria as a country is yet to be fully transformed into a technologically advanced and or industrialized country, perhaps due to non viability in the implementation of the policy. The nation’s economy is still comatose while beneficiaries (graduates) of the educational system graduated without necessary skills for self-reliance, this situation has led to high rate of unemployment among Nigerians. Of course the philosophy of self-reliance indicates a hall mark of self actualization, but the failure of the school curriculum to inculcate self reliance philosophy appropriately has led to wastage in terms of both human and natural resources. This paper therefore, re-examine Akinpelu’s concept of self reliance by classifying key concepts like education and self reliance. The paper also examines self reliance as a theme in the Nigeria National Policy of education, likely experience in education, that could make an individual to be self reliance. The paper conclude by providing ways by which the educational system in Nigeria at all level could be properly executed such that every graduates of any level of educational system could be gainfully employed (self-reliance) without sole reliance on white collar job.

Keywords: Education, Self Reliance, Graduate.

Introduction

Many years after the emergence of new educational system, the country is yet to be transformed into a technologically advanced and or industrialized country. The Nation’s economy is still comatose while beneficiaries of education at every level of educational system graduated without necessary skills for self reliance, this situation has led to high rate of employment among Nigeria’s. Of course the philosophy of self reliance indicates a hallmark of self actualization however the failure of the school curriculum to inculcate self reliance philosophy appropriately has led to wastage in term of both human and natural resources. This is because the products of schools, as institution are not adequately equipped with the skills with which to exploit the natural resources, that are abound in Nigeria. Alongside new sets of vices amongst Nigerians, such as: corruption, deceit, suspicion and ethnic chauvinism.

All these indices have rendered the pursuit of self reliance among Nigerians graduates difficult to attain. Although, self-reliance has become a famous and favorite concepts in our society both in the government circles and among the populace the concept as posited by Babarinde (1990) has been employed by different users (various government) and as part of manifestos by several political parties to mean and achieve different ends. The debate this concept has generated therefore deserves refinement by encouraging analysis, synthesis, examination and further analyses. For example a good number of students who have completed their secondary education but do not wish to continue with higher education are in dilemma, this is because they are well equipped with necessary skills to empower themselves. Equally too, the training acquired at the end of secondary educations seems inadequate to make the school leavers competent and self reliance, hence, cannot contribute to nation building thus, the Nigeria society despite the laudability in self-reliant objective is still being challenged with the following plagues;

• great number of unemployable youth who cannot raise the economic productivity of the country
• idleness on the pact of majority of Nigeria youth
• negative perception about acquisition of entrepreneurial skills
• under funding of self-reliant programme at various strata of our educational system.

These and many other problems had resulted in seeing knowledge imparted in the populace as a means rather than as an end-in-itself. As Akinpelu (2005) argued again education (and by this meant the formal, the non-formal, the informal, and even the casual mode) is the only recognizable and morally acceptable method of changing behavior, and attitude to ensure durability, flexibility and permanence. But in Nigeria the method of changing behaviors have been polluted with deceit (deception), non-continuity in policy, political interest and diversion of funds. Nevertheless, this paper will attempt to examine scholarly view of Akinpelu on the essence of education for self-reliance.

Akinpelu Concept of Education and Self-Reliance

Akinpelu posited that the set of aims we are selecting for treatment are rather nebulous but they certainly have high emotional appeal, in that they purport to address themselves to the socio-cultural problems that are afflicting both and the new nations of the world. Thus, Akinpelu (2005) reporting Freeman – Butt expresses that:

………Whatever terms may be used or whatever  approached is adopted, foundational studies is the attempt to understand the role of education in society, to enable the individual educator to understand the functioning, the problems and the direction in which his society is moving, so that he can contribute as an educator to the welfare of his community, his notion and the international orders

Akinpelu, (1992) reiterated, education is a concept which we have used several times, there are several ways in which we talk about education. He further mentioned, education is equated with what takes place in formal institutions of learning. But except we know what exactly takes place within a school’s situation, we cannot really grasp the full meaning of the statement. To him, having attend one school or two, we may have some idea of what goes on within the schools walls, but it is still an important question as to know if what goes on there is educational. Again, Akinpelu (1992) argued which of the thousand and one activities that take place during a student’s life in a school can we call education? Also, if it is all the activities, how do they educate? In our daily use of words we have freely referred to the system of education we also talk of the ministry of education, the way education is organized and arranged or the methods of delivery or execution of educational policies. (Akinpelu 1992:176).

Also, the identification of education within schooling itself raises other problems to which there are no quick and easy solutions. Akinpelu succinctly write the retort, of course, may be that by education that here we mean formal education, thus, considering that at least there is another aspect of education that is non-formal or informal, which are not necessary had in the formal school situation or in a classroom (Akinpelu 1992:175).

Albetly Akinpelu (1992) posited: It is still an unresolved problem as to the extent of the influence of the school on the development of a person as contrasted with the influence of other agencies of education in the society. Arguing further, the awareness that education is more than schooling and that there are other agencies of education such as:

• The home
• The extended family
• The peer group
• The mass media
• Religious bodies and so on.

We can then argue, one thing is common to all, that all other agencies are concerned with education, though they knows about education but do not tell us what education is. This means that excepts we know what education is, we can claim to know what they really stand for. The unresolved question is what manner of education would an individual acquire to make him educated? And when he is educated, what does such skill acquired in education make him to be (self-reliance)?. In the limit of arguing this out, let us consider who is an educated person? In other word by examining the concept of an educated man we could be able to generalize what education would make an individual to be as regard self reliant.

Akinpelu (1992) argued in the African culture, the concept of the educated man is not very clear, since there is no such distinction between the educated man and the ideal citizen as we have in the Western European culture Education been livelong and embracing the whole way of living, to talk of the educated man is to talk of the ideal man in the culture Thus, the educated person can be described as:

One who combine expertise in some specific economic skills with soundness of character and wisdom in judgement. He is one who equipped to handles successfully, the problems of living in his immediate and extended family, who is well versed in the folk -lores and genealogies of his ancestors, who has some skill to handle some minor health problems and whence to obtain advice and help in major ones, who stands well with the ancestral spirit of his family and knows how to observe their warship, who has the ability to discharge his social and political duties, who is wise and shrewd in the judgment, who express himself not in too many words but rather in proverbs and analogies leaving his bearers to unravel his thought, who is self-controlled under provocation, dignifies in sorrow and restrained in success and finally and mostly importantly who is of excellent character……… (Akinpelu 1992:179)

In further quest, Akinpelu (1992) agreed with Peter’s description about education, thus they posited that some knowledge of the activity is presupposed and some amount of interest, but an education person is not in ode up of intellectual and cognitive operations alone. An educated person is one who is fully developed as a person and in relation to other person in his society. An integrated person will be one who is economically efficient, socially arid politically competent, morally acceptable arid intellectually and culturally sophisticated. (183).

Therefore, if education in the African context as argued and agreed by Akinpelu is life – long and embracing the whole way of living, to talk of the educated man is to talk of the ideal man in the culture. To this light Akinpelu thus affirmed: “…………….all the qualities and aptitudes are individual – centered, the viruses around his person, the emphasis is on the self…………..´´(180)

To this end, Akinpelu (2005) maintained perhaps the wonder is that it has taken long to discover the simple truth that all genuine and durable development, whether of the individual or of the society and then nation depend on self – motivation, self mobilization and sell actualization (93).

He, therefore summed up that the concepts of self reliance is not new to the Nigerian vocabulary, in fact it’s featured prominently in the preamble to the second national development plan (1970 – 74) when it formed the first of the five pillars of cardinal principle on which the philosophy of the plan rested, and it has been adopted as the third of the five foundation of the national policy on education, Of, course, the theme is not also not new to Africa (Akinpelu 2005-93)

Teacher and Education for Self – Reliance

Education is the bedrock of civilization again Akinpelu (1992) posed that which of the thousand and one activities that take place during a student’s life in a school can we call education? More so, available literature by Peter posited some knowledge of the activity is pre-supposed and some amount to interest. This therefore called for acquisition of knowledge that take can make one to be educated, through the instructor who gives order or impacts knowledge of facts, rules, modes of operating and so on, to a relatively learner. Socrates in his know thyself said; “Happy as the man whose wish and care a few paternal acres bound, content to breathe his native air in his own ground.´´ (Alexander Pope in Akinpelu, 2005).

Suffice too, Akinpelu (2005) said the theme of self-reliance is the slogan on everybody’s lips, mind and thought in Nigeria today’s and rightly so too. Perhaps the wonder is that it has taken so long to discover the simple truth that all genuine and durable developments whether of the individual or of the society arid the nation depend on self-motivation, self-mobilization and sell-actualization, Again, Akinpelu maintained not that the concepts is new to Nigeria vocabulary, no. In fact it featured prominently the preamble to the second national development plan (1970-74). According the theme is also not new to Africa in general. It will be recalled that Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, former president of Tanzania made much of it in the mid-sixties and aptly titles his nations new educational policy “Education for self- reliance”. The clarion call has always been for tapping of one inner resources. This call has ranged from Socrates the Greek father of Western philosophy to Alexander pope the famous English Poet (Akinpelu, 2005:94).

Clearly, the theme which permeated the whole philosophy of the stoic was:

• Self sufficiency
• Self reliance
• Being – master of one’s own destiny
• Living within one’s means and so on.

Akinpelu reporting Nyerere said only genuine development was self development. Nobody can develop another person, nobody can give another person self pride. It is only the man himself (94).

Again, on the Nigeria scene Akinpelu reiterated even though, the concepts first appeared in the second national development plan, and were endorsed by the national policy on education, it remained only a rhetorical phraseology from which nothing particularly followed. Let us ponder on the facts that the concepts (self-reliance) appeared first in the second national development Plan and endorsed by the national policy on education of 1977. The argument is when does the policy became implemented?

Pondering on the above arguments, Akinpelu (2005) posited that it was not until the inception of the Babangida administration that it became a national cry and consuming national objectives. The dimension adopted was that the President 1987 budget speech was particularly redolent with this theme. Akinpelu asserted that it featured as one of the three cardinal principles of government policy, the other two being economic reconstruction and social justice. Akinpelu emphasized indeed the over aching and major objectives of the entire budgets was sell-reliance. It was recalled according to Akinpelu that in the policy it was spelt out that self-reliance naturally entailed some measure of:

• Sacrifice and self-denial
• Some tolerance and temporary hardship and inconveniences in lieu of the longer and greater benefits to be reaped,
• And that the concept itself meant the growth and development of the society through the people’s own self-will and efforts.

He further add in concrete terms, for example the spirit of self-reliance should help us endure the negative effect of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) whose long term objectives is the structural adjustment of the economy. Again, Akinpelu (2005) maintained on the positive side, it should manifest itself in the people’s determination and efforts to be self-sufficient in food – production, in local sourcing of raw material for the industrial mills, and in being proud users of what we have produced locally, even if they are not as glittering, refined or sophisticated as those imported from Europe and Japan

Akinpelu, reiterated, what is certainly impressive in the latest call for the spirit of self-reliance is the determination to move it beyond mere rhetoric and sloganeering. Therefore, in his opinion, concretes and positive actions are being taken to inculcate the attitude, sighting an example, he mentioned the ban on importation of rice arid wheat, inspite of the loud protestation especially on the latter items and perhaps more fundamentally the decision to reconstruct the economy and work out our own salvation, for ourselves and by ourselves with the rejection of the IMF loan and its conditionalities. He maintained all these and more have obviously involved and continued to involve, considerable degrees of hardship and suffering as anticipated and forewarned but perhaps what is more important is the gradual cultivation of a new attitude, this new attitude includes;

• A new attitude of carefulness and
• Frugality in the use of our meager resources,
• Of a gradually developing maintenance culture to keep our gadgets working for as long as they possibly could,
• Making do with is valuable rather than pinning after foreign imported items, fripperies, and luxuries,
• And finally of pride in our culture and tradition.

To Akinpelu; the gradual shedding of the spirit, feeling and attitude of dependency on other for our food needs is perhaps the single most important step in our quest for individual, national self- reliance and survival (Akinpelu 2005:95). In consonant, Emerson (1848) in his self reliance thought on finding solution to America problem of social state posited;

“Men and women who shall renovate life and our social State but we see that most natures are insolvent, cannot satisfy their own wants (needs), have an ambition out of all proportion to their practical force, aim at goals they cannot achieve and do learn and beg day and night continually”.

Emerson asserted self-reliance will rescue life and society from;

• Weakness
• Despair
• Defeat
• And restore is capacity for greatness

The arguments here, is since the concept of self-reliance appear to be economical and political undertone in Nigeria where does education fit-in? Akinpelu (2005) in a quest to provide probable solution or argument for, posited that the changes cataloged of our educational system from colonial grooves and old system which appears to have been firmly wedged required the need for individual and societal survival. In his view most people are not prepared for the crunch and not a few are buckling under. But in his opinion be that as it may, it is pertinent to note that however long the iron law of necessity may operate, it is essentially an externally imposed force and that once there is a relaxation in that force, the old dependency trait may re-emerge.

To buttress on this Akinpelu expresses that the change that is a product of harsh necessity will continue only for as long as the causative necessity lasts, and even if the behavior persists after the removal of the reinforce (using Skinnerian terminology), the overall effect will be a rigid drilled in response to the stimulus rather than a flexible and responsive attitudes. He thus analyzed this is where education comes in.

Akinpelu noted education (formal, the non-formal, the informal and even the casual modes) is the only recognizable and morally acceptable method of changing behavior and attitudes to ensure durability, flexibility and permanent. He claimed all other methods are beset with one objection or another and in particular the moral objection that they trample on the freedom of the individual and what R.S Peters in Akinpelu (2005) had called the wittingness and voluntariness on the part of the learner. Kant position on these concepts placed the leaner only as a means rather than as an end-in-himself.

Suffice too, thy National policy on education helps to place emphasis on education as a source to project the self-reliance message. Thus:

Education will continue to be highly rated in national development plans, because education is, the most important instrument of change as any fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded by an educational revolution (N.P.E2014:6.

Self Reliance As A Theme In The Nigeria Educational System

Babarinde, (1990) posited self-reliance is generally acclaimed ideals by men and nations. To him, he argued: What does self reliance mean? How has the concept been employed in popular debates and discussion?

Thus, we can claim the dimension he argued in the above inquisition is that a man attain qualitative level of development only when he is able to recognize his abilities and he is ready to pursue them. On this, Emerson as reported by Babarinde (1990) writes;

there is a time in every roan’s education when he arrives at the conviction that envy is ignorance, that imitation is suicide, that he must take himself for better or worse as his portion, that though the wide universe in full of good, no kernel of nourishing corn can come to him but through his toil bestowed on plot of ground which is given to him to till.

The power which resides in him is new in nature and none hut he knows what that is which he can do nor does he

Knows until he has tried” (Emerson in Baborinde, 1990:118)

In consonant, Akinpelu (2005) buttressed, even though attitudinal transformation is a natural and inevitable expectation from any educational system (since education is an intervention in human normal growth process which never leave the recipient the same as before), it must be conceded that self- reliance was not a targeted focus of our educational system until recently. Nevertheless it is presumed somehow that the products of our educational system would turn out to be: Self directed, Enterprising and Autonomous individuals (Akinpelu 2005;93)

Although neither the origins, the historical development, the stated objectives, the circular contents, the pedagogical arrangements, nor finally the administrative structures of our past educational system and policy envisage self-reliance as a special attitudinal change to be worked for. For instance, the tradition of education as an access and a passport to government job, (whether as a teacher, as a clerk) in the view of Akinpelu (2005) did not prepare people’s minds for venturing out their own and staking out their own “paternal acres of land”. But rather the pernicious inheritance from the Colonial educational system is such which made the school graduates after gradation always looking for job. Perhaps, no idea of education as a liberation of energy and creativity to ventures out for oneself. This implies that graduates of any level of education are not to blame because the education they received in the past have not prepared graduate to be self-reliance. Akinpelu affirmed the most discernable objectives of school education in Nigeria was (and still principally) is the passing of examinations which enables one to move higher and higher on the educational ladder, until one obtain a certificate “golden fleece”. And thereafter, the certificates are to be hawked around until they find a buyer, yet those certificates were obtained through an academic, bookish and encyclopedic education that pretended to prepare the student generally for everything but really for nothing in particular.

Akinpelu therefore argued if self-reliance was never made a specific objectives to be taught and zealously cultivated, and if the society of the school itself did not encouraged, reward or foster the spirit of rugged individualism and independency in its own social and economic arrangements, it should not be surprising that self-reliance has not been a prominent outcome of our educational system in theory and practice until recently when education at all level began to spread the gospel for entrepreneur skill acquisition, no wonder Nigeria is still able to boast of perhaps the most dynamic business entrepreneurs, captain of industries, professional and enterprising citizen in the whole of black Africa (Akinpelu, 2005:98) In concord, the Nigeria Philosophy of education believe that:……… there is need for functional education for the Promotion, progressive, united Nigeria, to this end school Programs need to be relevant, practical and comprehensive, while interest an ability should determine the individual direction in education (N.P.E 2014 4:4)

Likely Experiments In Education For Self – Reliance

The Nigeria educational system in general have attempted to reverse the trend of education system that tend to prepare the student towards certificate obtainment alone but towards self-reliance innovation.

Akinpelu (2005) supported that the only problem is that those effort are far too few to lift the whole system out in the mire or irrelevance, or too spasmodic to exert a consistent or permanent influence on the system. In an attempt to examine the concept of self reliance let us consider some likely experiment in educational innovation which can be regarded as promotive of self-reliance as prescribed by Akinpelu.

Akinpelu (2005) reference the comprehensive school experiment of the early sixties and school farms project experiment in Oyo State in the early eighties as analysis of experimental and as examples of the spirit of self-reliance, Firstly, the comprehensive school experience is being regarded as an ideal practical sense where teaching and learning were done in some special direction towards making its graduate to receive education for self-reliance. Thus knowledge imparted and acquired posses both culture and expert knowledge in some direction.

Akinpelu re-emphasized in the comprehensive school learners were exposed to a wide variety of curriculum contents thus, the

• Technically,
• Literary and
• Artistically oriental individuals can learn in the same environment as academically gifted without any feeling of inferiority or condescension.

To Akinpelu, all the options in the school enjoy parity of attention and of esteem. Again, Akinpelu confirmed: The result is that the product comes out with some skills with which they can make out their own existence, in addition to the leaving influence of general education (Akinpelu, 2005: 99).

In same view, Babarinde (1990) reporting Ayo Adewole when he submits that: Self – reliance suggest a situation where individuals have been equipped with the intellectual resources and the vocation skill to achieve self — fulfillment without of necessity depending on others, or where nation can cater for the basic requirements of her citizens without having to make this duty rest on other nations (117).

From the above assertion, we can deduced some dimensions of intellectual and material levels skills that can make an individual to be self – reliance. Akinpelu further mentioned the philosophy that motivated the setting up of an experimental comprehensive school at Aiyetoro in the defunct Western Region, worth the financial backing of United States Agency for International Development (USAID.) Aiyetoro according to Akinpelu remained only an experiment with hardly any influence outside itself for many reasons; among which were the experiment was too expensive to replicate in a large number of schools, the non – co-operation of the beneficiaries and their parents whose ideal of education was a literary and academic menu, the unsupportive public attitude towards vocational and technical qualification, and so on.

Again, Akinpelu reiterated that an observation made which appear to be generating true of Nigeria is that Nigerians have a way of making innovative experiments too expensive to operate and very much dependent on imported gadgets and personnel for success. The model at Aiyetoro was the typically British or American Comprehensive High School transplanted lock, stock and barrel into the Nigeria soil. He mention there was no concession to local conditions and no adaptation or modification in lieu of local circumstances; thus the whole experiment became an unbearable drain when the donor’s funds dried up.

Akinpelu also submits the second experiment was the attempt by the civilian government of Oyo State in 1979 – 1983 under Governor Bola Ige, to integrate agriculture into the life of each secondary school, whereby each school in the rural area was expected to put about twenty acres of land under cultivation, while schools in the urban areas, where land is not available were expected to establish and run horticultural and poultry farms. The idea in this sense was to make each school an agricultural productive unit, and the objectives were as follows: to make the youth of Oyo state appreciate the dignity of labour, to enable school children of Oyo state to contribute to food production, to develop the interest of the youth of Oyo state in modern techniques of agriculture in Nigeria and Oyo state, to enable youths to appreciate the problem o f the Nigerian farmers, to enhance rural development (Akinpelu, 2005: 101).

The dimension took another trend as the vast majority of Nigerians saw nothing wrong with the literary education received in the grammar type of secondary schools, there were a few individuals who decried the trend and some of them dared to experiment. Akinpelu accounts that two of such individuals are Tai Solarin of Mayflower School and Mr. Jegede the founding principal of African Church High School, Ikere – Ekiti. Accordingly, in the mid – fifties, in Akinpelu literatures, Tai Solarin had launched his experiment in the teeth of opposition from bureaucracy and officialdom but with the good luck of having a sympathetic, enlightened and tolerant minister as the political head of the then Western Regional Ministry of Education.

In spite of the tendency toward idolization and adulation of the proprietor in some of the accounts, the philosophical principles of the experiment are fairly discernable and worthy f pursuit. This includes:

• The do-it yourself philosophy, which made the students join even in the construction of their own classroom, dormitories, dining hail and recreational grounds, in the baking of their own bread, washing of their own plates, producing their own food, editing and producing their own magazine and so on.
• The self-sufficiency motif, which made it unnecessary for students to patronize the barber off- campus since there was a barbing society. The same situation obtained with the plumber, the carpenter, the painter, the electrician club and so on, students societies specialized in offering these services, all on their own.
• The work-does-not-kill-but-rather-toughens-you-up principle, which made it a natural element of the curriculum to be engaged in at least one productive physical activity or another, including grass cutting by female students.
• The vocational and agricultural orientation in education, which made it mandatory for each student to be involved in one agricultural activity or another, and to be exposed to many types of vocations, with proficiency in a few of them. The programme of vocational work ensures that each pupil who passes through the school comes out not just with a perfunctory knowledge of many vocations. He is encouraged to be proficient, if not in all, at least in some end.
• And finally, liberty-freedom of speech, of opinion, of worship, of taking initiatives, of experimenting, and so on, with corresponding acceptance of responsibility for consequences.

Again, Akinpelu in his literature says, what seems to be clear in all the accounts of the school is that the greatest obstacle to the development of the spirit of enterprise, of initiative and self- reliance is the deadening hand of conformity and strangulating uniformity. Students who are not free to experiment can hardly develop confidence and self assurance to try out something new. To him, the second lesson is that self-reliance involves some sacrifices whether of convenience or of some ideal standard to which one might have been used. He used the Mayflower pioneer student as example whereby early government investors sees the Mayflower self-reliance scheme as just “too primitive” to retain the students for long in the school, and hence they needed not recommend its closure. Yet, in Akinpelu’s examination of the concept it turned into challenge and an advantage. Akinpelu reiterated, the result was a hardihood and determination to succeed, and a self-pride in their achievements which available literature reported is a distinguishing characteristic of the “old may”. Even though a systematic characteristic of the experimented school is still to be carried out; yet examples are sufficiently convincing of its beneficial influence.

Although, the only snag is that there are not many other ‘lion hearts’ to follow in the footsteps of Tai Solarin but it has been an eye-opener as to what is possible (Akinpelu, 2005:103)

In similar concept, a notable illustration of self-reliance scheme in the school system was the African Church High School (ACHS), Ikere – Ekiti experience as posited by Akinpelu (2005) pointed that under the foundation principal of the school, Mr. Jegede, self-reliance was one of the cardinal principles of the school, and agriculture its cornerstone. He illustrated further, citing comparative study of post graduate students of the University of lbadan, Malam Aliyu Mamma when he carried out a comparative study of the integration of work and school in both Tanzania and Nigeria; thus the following information were provided on the ACHS experiment. Hence, the objectives of the programme are:

• To develop the spirit of and achieve a high degree of self-reliance
• To foster the spirit of educational and productive work, so that the graduates of the school will be able to face realities of life and enjoy work in real life situation.
• To give equal weight and treatment to both theoretical and practical aspects of education.
• To discourage the self-centered, lazy and arrogant attitudes of most secondary school leavers in Nigeria in general where (like the inherited English public school system) students are served by an array of labourers and servants.
• In encourage students to be more of produce than consumers (Akinpelu, 2005:104)

Akinpelu succinctly posited the above mentioned aims and objectives are: the pursuit of which by any institution is most likely to result in producing graduates; who can stand on their own, who can strike out for themselves and achieve, in addition to providing part of their own upkeep during their tutelage (104). While the emphasis is on the assessment of self-reliance as a theme in the Nigerian Educational System, Akinpelu enjoin that while the system as a whole has not been specifically geared, in either curriculum or methodology towards the achievement of self-reliance, there were a few bright spots here and thorn, but even then it was the private and individual rather than slate or government efforts that succeeded.

The new national policy on education in Nigeria is associated with a numerical policy on education in Nigeria and is also associated with a numerical formula of 6-3-3-4 which represents the numbers of years a child is expected to spend at various level of education. The first 6 stand for six year in the primary, followed by three years at the junior secondary and four years at the tertiary level. It is on this basis that the new national policy of education; the 6-3-3-4 educational system was formulated which is a radical departure from the former British educational system implanted in Nigeria was that it was guided by the imperial utilitarian considerations. Historically, after political independent, Nigerian educationists greatly criticize the system which they claimed did not provide for the requisition of technical development therefore promoting self reliance, The critics of the former system lamented that the system was not relevant to the political, economic, social and cultural need of the Nigeria people. They therefore conclude as rightly put by Osokoya that such system could not meet the national need for self reliance and sustenance in a growing agricultural states new system of education focusing and accusation of skills, appreciation of the dignity of labour, solving the country problem of illiteracy, man power shortage and promoting scientific and technological advancement was devised. It is then conceived that the new educational policy (6-3-3-4) in Nigeria aimed at given the nation a sense of direction by establishing a system that embody the nation aspiration as drafted in 1973, involving practitioner from ministries of education, all universities in the country, representative of various interested organization, national union of Nigerian Students UNESCO and so whilst its final white paper was adopted and produce in 1997 as the outcome of 1969 national conference on curriculum development. Of course, there is no doubt that the N.P.E document has been revised several times to accommodate changes orchestrated by technological development as the effect of education (Nwangwu in Babalola 2007).

In Consonant, Dewey argued perhaps it seems absurd or at least a negation of much to regard the relationship between the society and the individual as a problem. Dewey a faithful pragmatist instrumentalist based his philosophy on societal education ragged on individualism and rural economics self sufficiency which will give way to industrialization has nexus of social economics and political interrelationships, philosophically, this paper focuses on examination of Akinpelu’s concept of education for self reliance. On this view Akinpelu’s positing on Rousseau’s in discussing education for self reliance, argued that the problems of the individuals and the societies can best be understood when we identify what in the society view the form of education needed for the individual and for participation in society?

Secondly, how would the individual having been in the society with his free will, liberty and reason will be able to direct the knowledge, skill, value and will for good and for ill? The question postulated is will the individual (self) guided by the principle of reason and enlighten, self anarchism, self interest derived from the societal education will not jeopardize into what we refer as self agrandization and self mesmerization of knowledge.

Rousseau’s in Akinpelu (2005) equally supported this view stating:

ndividual guided by principal of reason and enlighten seif interest, the individual for the free pact or the social contract with like minded orders, but ill – directed and motivated by selfishness the result in Parisian society(55)

It was then agreed on that, thought a distinguished characteristic self reason does not automatically leads to inevitable progress nor is it as ineffective for man’s redemption as Calvinistic, pre-destination would have it. The individual even though is in control of his own destiny and of his self determination will not be able to do so without having a purposeful education. Further, the individual is certainly not the hypothetical “natural man’living in simplicity and in the state of nature like the noble savage. Akinpelu posited in the view of Rousseau’s that the so-called Natural man (individual) does not exist in any Known state, where is he asked Rousseaus, this natural man who lives truly human life, who caring nothing for the opinion of other had only in accord with his impulses and reason without regard of the praise and blame of society? Thus, man is to live and operate in society and this will he be able to do through his possession of reason. It is necessary however to point out that reason or human nature is not inherently good in any absolute sense but rather it is only capable of becoming good, of becoming perfect, given the proper education and favorable social and political environment. (Akinpelu, 2005:108) In further quest, the importance of education in the overall development of a nation cannot be over emphasized. In Nigeria philosophy of Education, it is believed that:

1. Education is an instrument for national development in this end the formulation of’ ideas, their integration for national development and deals are all aspects of education
2. Education fosters the worth and development of the individual for each individual sake and for the general development of the society (N. P. E, 2004: 1).

The policy further states that education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans because education is the most important instrument of change; any fundamental changes in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded by an educational revolution. On the contrary, Osokoya (2008) argued that education as a panacea, a solution to the problem of the world had recently been called to question; in his observation, items 4 section one of the N.P.E are assumptions which clearly over simplified and exaggerate the potency of education as vehicle for achieving all round development. He observed further that indeed, education sometimes act as an impediment to the development and when education does not cause development its influences is often complex and very subtle. Again, Babarinde (1990) posited that in Nigerian national policy on education equally express sentiment when it state that;

Education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans because education is the most important instrument of change, any fundamental change in the intelligent and social outlook of any society has to be proceeded by an educational revolution (N.P.E, 2004:3)

In similar view, Weiler (1978:80) argued that educational expansion as we know does not necessarily make people of countries more prosperous instead it may does leave the former without jobs and the latter with increasingly burdensome claims on public funds.

Aminigo (2003) noted that the past three and half decades have seen the rapid development of formal education with high enrollment ratio, abundant provision of facilities and institutions to house the learners. But on the contrary, these increases in ratio of learners seeking formal education on one hand and the measure of government as custodian of policy in provision of needed education at all level have generally neglected the economic and local realities status of the nation. The question is are we given pupils of school age formal education because we want to be recognized among nations of the world as educated people and nation? Or are we placing priority on education that will bring about;

• The inculcation of national consciences and national unity.
• The inculcation of the type of values and altitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian Society.
• The training of’ the mind in the understanding of world around and
• The acquisition of’ appropriate skills and the development of menial, physical and social abilities and competence as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of the society (N. P. E, 2004: 2-3)

A critical look at our educational system, a lot of the products of our institutions presently in the view of Aminigo (2003) have amounted to surplus and unemployable manpower yet there are many arrears of economics activities and production lacking viable hands and manpower. Farayola (1999) posited that education goals set without due cognizance of the national goals are meaningless because the very foundation upon which they become meaningful is missing. Cookey (1997) in Farayola (1999) argued’ that; no system of education can be analyzed or criticized apart from the society which it is designed to serve” (113).

Farayola mentioned, both Aristotle and Plato subscribed that society ought to be given first consideration, its type and nature, the cherished values, the aspiration of its people and above all, what the society would accepts as good life. They further proposed that educational proposals that ignore these salient facts are bound to crumble. thus each traditional African society had its own value of the community, this brings us to the issue of educational system as a tool to established the cherished value of the community, this brings us to issue of education and national relevance in Nigeria. As postulated by Kosemani (2001), for any education to be of value, it should he relevant to the experience and to the real world in which pupils live. We argued therefore that national relevance does not simply means that education must be Nigerialized but that it should involve intellectual knowledge and practical application of the fruit of education in such way to enhance the quality of the individual lives and national development. I he attention here is that producing graduate at any level of our education which is order of the day without equipping them (graduate) with viable positive values, skills, knowledge and attitude that will expose them to entrepreneur, vocational and technical skill so as to meet the productivity capacity of the nation and to ensure self reliance in the ability of earning income without due course reliance on government, will go along way in promoting viable economy with sustainable development.

In similar concept, Akpan (1997) believe that any education which has to do with the development of skill, attitudes and knowledge necessary for gainful employment is vocational education as such, such education will be classified as education for self reliance. As supported by Akinpelu (2005).

The theme of self- reliance is the slogan on everybody lips, mind and thought in Nigeria today, and rightly so too. Perhaps, he wonder that it has taken so long to discover the simple truth that all genuine and durable developments whether of the individuals or of the society and nation depend on self motivation and calf actualization, (P. 93).

Conclusion and Recommendation

The purpose of this paper has been to re-examine Akinpelu’s concept of self Reliance and its implication for Nigeria system of education, consequently, we attempted clarification on self reliance concept in the Nigeria socio economic context as argued by Akinpelu in relation to the educational practice of the nation. We asserted that education in Nigeria ancpiapin1Africa is usually influenced by the religion, political and cultural practice of the society to the level that the ever changing complex systems of ideas, precepts, concept, process and skills, by which society is established is concerned with progress, needs and aspiration of the citizenry. Attempt was further made to establish that education is aim at making individual and the society ensure mutual co-existence and contribute to the development of the society in consonant with the view of Akinpelu when he reiterated that the debate on the influence of these ideologies (education as bedrocks of civilization) to reach, do reach the open and as such times, the system which appears, to be unified whole is really seen to be compromising on the many views and ideas that strive to dominate and redirect the educational trend.

To this end the paper co-ask the fundamental questions as posited by Babarinde that; what is education? and what is education for?

Further question being asked is what types of education does one require so as to be independent, liberated, self sufficient, self contentment, self satisfactory, self determined and become an achiever? We could deduce that almost all philosophers from Socrate, Plato, Kant ,Dewey, Nyerere, Fafunwa, and Akinpelu to mention few had at one time or the other advocates for an educational curriculum and system that will have positive effect and light on personal and societal life of individual, this goes to prove that education is a matter of public concern.

On this note a nation education at every level should make an individual, society, nation and large society to be self reliance socially, politically and economically. Olaniyonu (1998) posted socially education bring about general enlightment, play a vital role in socialization, occupation, preparation, selection and development of sell-conceptions. It equally bring, about social change in attitude, motivation and invention which could lead to technological change, investment and limitation.

Politically, education brings about national unity by enlightening the member on their commitment to the national course. Economically education provide the necessary skill and technique designed to improve human competences, increase the stock of knowledge and ensure in making an individual to be self reliance, education should confers certain characteristics such as, broad mindness, openness to new experience, readiness for change, development of liberal opinion, planning ability, efficiency, productivity arid the knowledge as well as value of technical know how (skills).

Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1847 in his essay on self reliance claimed “the soul always hears an admonition in such lines, let the subject be what it may” Further we posited just in the same manner with Emerson that to believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, that make the individual a genius.

Again From this angle education should make one develop latent conviction that will be universal sense for the inmost in due time become the outmost in the end. In Nigeria the position of education should agree with the view of Emerson when he say’s self reliance education presupposes that the mind is initially subject to an unhappy conformism, therefore, education given to a man should make him to be successful free from outside influence, should not suppress personal interest and satisfaction.

Let us conclude by saying whatever the education system of a nation or society is giving to an individual should or ought to be an investment in human capital with the hope to increase the productive capacity of the human being and the possibility of receiving higher earning in the future. Again one does not necessary need to attend school only to acquire knowledge and skill but also extend to possibility obtain entrepreneur skill, that will be a panacea to survival and development.

Further from the Nigeria national policy on education the expresses that;

“education shall continue to be highly rated in the national development plans, because education is the most importance instrument of change, any fundamental change in the intellectual and social outlook of any society has to be preceded an educational revolution

(NPE,2004:3).

The argument which follow should be what type of revolution will takes place in Nigeria education system that will about the realization of the five main object of;

• a free and democratize society
• a just arid egalitarian society
• a great and dynamic economy
• a land full of bright opportunities for all citizen
• A united strong and self relevant nation (?)

We then sum up in tune with the viewing Maliyamkono that one way to evaluate education for self of productive output and various services rendered to the community. However the policy also called for attitude change in which education should aim at instilling in the student the spirit of self – reliance through entrepreneurships skill acquisition along with other academic activities. Further, new attitude and value about the function of education, about the importance of social service in relation to personal benefit and about their duty to the nation and the community should be prioritized.

More so evaluation of the policy has to go beyond the walls of the school and most include skill acquisition centre, creative potentials’ and activities (farming, poultry) and self invention. Finally Akinpelu maintained, it must be emphasized that no school can significantly promote the spirit of self- reliance in its clients if the environ society is generally not ready for it and not supportive of its efforts.

Hence, self reliant training should start from;

• The primary school and made the hub of development and skill acquisition activities
• The secondary school level curriculum should be re-positioned to prepare student completely for living rather than for higher education advancement alone.
• Higher education level should inculcate a practically oriented programmed in the field of study as in entrepreneurial study
• Every member of the Nigerian society should be wholesomely mobilized and supportive on commitment to be self reliance with the motive of self sufficient.

Reference

Abdukareem A.Y. (1992) Issues in Nigeria Education. Ilorin: Kewulere Press

Adeyemo (1979) Principles of Education and Practice of Education Ado Ekiti: Omolayo Standard          Press & co

Akinkoutu, Y.A (2001): Modern Approach to Philosophical Foundation of Education (New         Edition) Lagos: Babs Olatunji Enterprises

Akinpelu, J.A (1992) An Introduction To Philosophy of Education. London and Basingstoke: The           Macmillan Press Ltd.

Akinpelu, J.A (2005): Themes In Philosophy of Education For Teachers; Ibadan Tafak      Publication.

Akinpelu, J.A (2005): Essays In Philosophy and Education. Ibadan: Stirling – Horden Publishes   (Nig) Ltd

Ansari D, Coch D (2006) Bridges Over Troubled Water: Education and Cognitive Neuroscience,             Trends In Cognitive Sciences Elsevior Science

Bamisaiye R. (I 989) A Practical Approach to Philosophy of Education Ibadan: AMD Publishers

Douglas J.S Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction To Philosophy. Australia Sixth Edition.       Thomson Wadsworth Publishers.

Enoh, A.O. (2013): The Neglect of Philosophy of Education and The Spread of Nigeria’s             Educational    Wasteland. An Inaugural Lecture Calabar: Cross River University   Technology.

Fabunmi : J.O. (1986) Social and legal Implication of the 6 – 3 – 3 – 4 System of Education in      Nigeria Journal of Ancops 2 (1) P.7

Farayola J.A (1999) Philosophical Foundation of Education. Lagos: Raytel Communication Ltd.

Farayola J.A (2004) Philosophy of Education. The System Approach, Lagos Raytel           Communication LTD

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004 National Policy on Education 4^th Edition Lagos: Federal          Ministry of Education http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/education.

Molagun, H.M (2005) Introduction to Philosophy of Education Enugu: Integrity Publication

Osokoya, I.O. (2008) Contemporary Issue In History and Policy on Education In Nigeria. Ibadan:           Laurel Educational Publishers Ltd.

Uduigwoman, A.F and Ogbinaka, K. (2011) Philosophy of Education AN Analytical Approach, Lagos: JOJA Educational Research and Publishers Ltd.

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Abstract

This article takes a cursory look at the extent to which the Nigerian higher education system have access to quality and functional infrastructural facilities in implementing educational programs and activities in her schools. School infrastructures are very important in teaching and learning in every tier of education. The role of infrastructural facilities in schools motivated both staff and students in improving academic performances all round. These infrastructural facilities comprises good classrooms, good lecture halls/theatres, up to date /related library facilities, laboratories equipment, extra-curricular facilities, good dormitories, mechanical workshop/equipments for engineering education, social amenities among other facilities needed for quality and standard in Nigerian education. It is expected that within the framework of the National Policy on Education believed that our higher schools are to enjoy the best dividends in the areas of quality infrastructures that would help in achieving our overall goals of education.  The article observed that in spite of the efforts of higher education in the country have been chained with many problems such as lacks of quality facilities of all kinds. For instance, lack of laboratory equipment, insufficient ICT centers, among others. The paper concludes that basic infrastructural facilities should be provided in order to address major challenges in teaching and learning process. This is because academic achievement is associated with functional and reliable facilities

Key; Infrastructure, Higher education, quality education,

Introduction

In both developed and developing nations, education is considered as essential tool through which people lives are determined. Nations rise and fall depending on how educational policies and programs are being perceived and implemented. Functional educational facilities help in promoting quality and standard education at all levels. Nigeria as a nation in Africa is not left out from educational race, which in Nigerian educational blueprint always emphasizes on provision of quality education to all Nigerian citizens irrespective of gender and socio-political level of people. Federal government further emphasizes on provision of functional educational facilities in both areas of arts and sciences towards improving quality and standards of education with reference to higher education in order to attain her development plan.

However, with this laudable offered made to Nigerian citizens, it is regrettable to say that Nigerian government had introduced two different programs on education since her political freedom from colonial power, educational institutions continue to received different orientation in areas of provisions of needed facilities for their takeoff.  With nature of democratic system of governance to some extent affects smooth implementation of academic programmes in most public schools, and teaching and learning process are being holds in empty or vacuum spaces without any basic infrastructural support.

 Beside, ideal educational policies and programs are being implemented in conducive and well controlled environment with all the needed educational facilities that would help in achieving our desired educational goals. In line with the specification given for the provision of functional facilities to Nigerian schools is questionable. Many education facilities in Nigerian higher schools has over stay and some of these facilities cease to work, especially scientific and library facilities to some extent are outdated. Lecture halls/ theatres are too small leading to overcrowdings and clashes, student’s hostels are also too small and lack electricity, poor social amenities, out dated extra-curricular facilities in some schools among other. The result of lack of educational facilities in schools affects our development plan and some instances reduce the image of our nation as the giant of African nations. 

The concept of infrastructural facilities

Infrastructure is defined as the basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a given society, academic institutions of teaching and learning or an enterprise. Infrastructure can also be seen as essential tools needed for the smooth running or function of any given activities in school. Beside the above operational view, infrastructure can be described as functional or workable structures necessary for running of nations economy and development plan of any type we wishes ourselves¹.

According to functionalists theorist stated that the progress of any given society whether primitive or modern society, depends largely on the functional structures of the society² These functional structures emphasized by the functionalists stick to those infrastructures that can help in determining positive steps of economic development of a given state.

In view of the above description, the term infrastructure has wider connection to human development both politically, economically and socio-cultural aspect that can helps in moving our societies towards competing in global race of educational achievement.  According to Admoler opined that development is the qualitative change or a progressive series of such changes in economic system. Such qualitative aspect of living is made possible by infrastructural facilities, such as roads, good health care facilities, basic education, good water supply, electricity, housing scheme development and transport facilities³’

In more specific sense, the functionalist to some extent added that a nation’s development plan cannot be fully achieved without educational system⁴. These imply that educational facilities if accessible will help to actualize the aims and objectives of education at every level.. These facilities refers to conducive school environment, comprises functional laboratory equipments, liberated library facilities for students research, good and furnished lecture halls and theatres, space classrooms, good accommodation, good water supply and electricity among other that would help in mass achievements of our educational goals. With this, infrastructural facilities are essential tool for human development.

Therefore, any nation’s education system with these facilities available would enhance students learning condition and any nation lack these facilities experiences failure educational achievement.

Status of the learning Infrastructure in Nigerian Higher Schools

The quality of higher education is determined by her infrastructural facilities and lack of these facilities affects academics programmes entirely. Federal government in most educational press continues to make promises on provision of quality and related educational facilities to schools regardless of their locations.. All government’s functions on educational matters to some extent have been touted as an accelerator of problems to quality education delivery at the higher levels of education. Since the establishment of some states and especially private higher schools, most of these schools admitted higher number of students without taking cognizance of the facilities on ground.

However, numbers of challenges continue to plaque education deliveries which to some extent graduating students who may no have space in the global market. In view of this,  the following are some of the major challenges that leads to overstretched facilities in most higher schools entirely. It is emphatically stated that crowded or uncomfortable school environment lead to low morale among teachers and students as well as it affects the society directly.

 Fraizers stated that lack of basic school infrastructure leads to all kind of malpractice in school examinations⁵. Ejionuece contributed that the physical infrastructure in schools in their poor conditions continue to adversely affects the contribution of higher education to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) ⁶

However, considering the nature of basic infrastructure in Nigerian higher education revealed that most of these facilities are over-used and some classrooms and lecture halls / theatres are small, while some are filled with dilapidated furniture, rough floor, windows and ceiling. Laboratories centers /equipments to some extent are adequate but they are in small size and too congested during students practical. It is based on these problems that Luckey stated that overcrowded schools had students scoring significantly lower than those schools with qualitative facilities for teaching and learning⁷. With this imply that poor physical infrastructures are common features in many educational institutions in Nigeria especially in basic and post basic schools nationwide. Most schools are characterized by ramshackle facilities. In addition, new programs and activities and its expanded intake have been suggested without matching provision of the physical facilities.

Kibui commented that education throughout the world has for many centuries emphasized a selective function regardless of available infrastructures in schools^8. A number of studies show that many schools system particularly those in urban and high poverty areas are plagued with poor supply of relevant infrastructures, decayed buildings that threaten the health, safety and learning opportunities of students. Good facilities even in their quantities appear to be an impact on pre-condition for students learning provided other conditions are present that support strong academic programs in the school (learning environment), are term used liberally in educational discourse because of the emerging use of information technologies for educational purpose.

Fisher conducted research on the impact of school infrastructures on student’s outcomes and behaviors in Georgia; he further stated that academic achievement improves with improved building conditions. He further established a correlation between school class size and student’s achievement that are overcrowded with students in lecture halls affects learners’ achievements. Base on this view one cannot expect high level of student’s academic performances where school buildings are poorly located and substandard. Adequate and current infrastructural facilities are the problems of Nigerian education at all levels.

Despite all these challenges, the National Policy on Education highlighted the relevance of higher education if well funded these include;

•  contributing to national development through high level manpower
• Developing and Inculcating proper values for the survival of the individual and society
• Developing intellectual capacity of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and external environment
• Acquiring physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self reliant and useful member of the society
• Promoting scholarship and community service
• Fostering national unity
• Promoting national and international understanding and interaction⁹

Overshooting the carrying capacity of most Nigerian higher schools is these objectives which needed to be achieving continuously. Adedipe described carring capacity as the maximum number of students that a university can admitted for quality education based on human and material resources, infrastructure is among the important operational inputs to any instructional programs¹⁰.  It also constitutes basic elements that are necessary for delivering of good teaching and learning, and these infrastructural facilities are vital in the development of qualitative higher education nationwide.

Ejiogu outlined four important factors in an attempt to balance the qualitative and quantitative growth of the education system in Nigeria. These range from the quality number of infrastructure (in form buildings, machinery and equipments) through the usage of the maintenance of the infrastructures^11. From the above views, the researchers further submitted that the quality of output is a function of infrastructure that determines students learning environment and their motivation to learn^.  Therefore, if quality is to be ensured in the Nigerian tertiary institutions, the infrastructural-base of the system need to be improved upon.

However, several studies and reports emphasized that infrastructural resources required for production of effective process in a short supply to Nigerian tertiary schools. Lecture halls, lecture rooms, laboratories, students hostels, library spaces are grossly inadequate.

National University Commission (NUC) 2004, in the communiqué of the presidential visitation panel that looked into the operation of Federal Universities between 1999 and 2003 reported that physical facilities at the universities were in deplorable condition^12.  It is saddening to note that the equipment for research, teaching and learning are either lacking or very inadequate and in bad shape to permit the universities the freedom of embarking on the basic functions of academics. It was some of these issues that some major programs in most universities lost accreditation as result of infrastructural decay which some find it difficult to regain or approval for continuity in programs.

Over many of higher education programs, various academics unions embarked on strike challenges the provision spelt out in the National Policy on Education which failed to implement due corrupt practice that have engulfed our nature of democratic dividends in the country. The best dividends to which a democratic nation can give to her citizens is quality and standard education without which such nation will remain as third world nation developing nation.

 Why we need Infrastructural facilities for Quality Higher Education in Nigeria

Qualitative higher education programs of any nation constitutes the pivot on which the development of such nation is based. Therefore, proper and correct acquisition of basic skills and knowledge by the students enrolled in any given nation school is fundamental to the growth and development. The need of infrastructural support highlighted that, higher quality education and training required that appropriate infrastructure be provided by the government in order to achieve her educational vision. Therefore, all students and their staff deserve safety, technology-reading, facilities designs for teaching and learning and adequate decent facilities structured around their learning environment for practical.

More importantly, completion rate and satisfaction with all educational programs are closely related to the infrastructure that can be provided in schools. Good physical buildings with functional and related educational equipments are essential for student’s success at any level. In view of this, the bridge between functional infrastructures and effective student learning is of great importance. Looking at our present higher schools in the present fourth republic there is no doubt that available infrastructure even in their scarcity in schools play significant role in the welfare of students. Even with the introduction of quality assurance in almost all Nigerian higher schools, yet there are major challenges that reveals low standard and as well as low qualities of schools and their associate products

Challenges of infrastructural facilities in Nigerian higher schools

Educational activities with genuine system of government principles of improving infrastructural facilities yielded some positive values that can promote entire society to a greater height. The Nigerian government over the years has faith on education as the highest tool for societal development. Federal government further described as an instrument for national development.

 But unfortunately, the de-functionality of the Nigerian education has become a source of worry to many Nigerian educators of both past and present, stakeholders, philosophers, educational planner, educators and the entire nation alike. The present principles of governance in Nigerian failed to address the basic issues in the nation’s education sector. For instance, unemployment, poverty, insurgency and some other contemporary issues are on the increase as result of weak infrastructure in all tiers of institution. Digital technology such as Internet services, library service among others provisions on her educational blueprint, the Nigerian National Planning Commission couple with experience of the past instabilities governance of schools to some extent described the country’s educational system as dyfunctional^14. The reasons for these characteristics included decaying infrastructural facilities leading to ill-prepared in terms of quality and standards in educational achievement’

It is regrettable that even in the 21^st century, an era dominated by science and technology, the Nigerian system of education has little or nothing to contributes to the globalization process. The nation education system even at this era of democratic system can best be useful for its sake while the same being irrelevant in the global race of educational achievements as result of infrastructural challenges in both public and some private tertiary schools nationwide. Couple with the above analysis, this paper identified the following as some of the major challenges as it continue lowering educational qualities, especially in the areas of science and technology system.

• Infrastructural decay, it is known fact that there is a steady decline in quality of infrastructure like lecture halls/rooms. Laboratories equipment, library facilities and a huge of other social amenities in Nigerian higher schools
• Under/miss-funding constrains. The gross under/miss-funding principle of educational sector, with specific reference to higher education in particular leads to total decline in the nation education system. The academic unions of these various institutions, especially (ASUU) embarked on strike action severally on the issues of revitalization of nation universities always become total war between ASUU and federal government on the issue of poor investment on university education entirely.
• Politicization of education, political directions are at the root of education policy, which in turn informs the direction of an education program. The program is subsequently processed at school and classroom levels to turn out the required product of education. Today, everything or policy pointed at political system for it implementation. Obanya, says, to play the good politics, the type how the next generation in mind and to abandon bad politics, especially the type that merely thinks of the next generation. Bad politics in education is noticeable in virtually all that is done concerning education in Nigeria. 
• Bad governance. The issue of bad governance, especially in the fourth republic is one of the major challenges to education entirely in Nigeria. Nigerian education ever before has the problem of bad governance since her political independence. But the current situations found, academics activities in most schools are under severe political instability and insecurity. Jega noted that the rate of political violence that has engulfed the nation is terrible. Corrupt politician with their principles of divide and rule strive in every way to dominate the people, to be perpetually in power and government officials are involved in corruption of the worst type¹⁵. World Bank in 2006 categorized Nigeria as one of the thirteen nations in the world facing the risk of collapse and is rated as the 7^th most corrupt nation in the world perpetuated by government officials in general¹⁶. In the aspect of security challenges, the present government has invested much on security matters, yet some insurgencies are gaining their freedom from prison.
•  With this kind of situations found available in all corners of Nigerian societies, Nigeria as a giant of African nations is seen by many especially the western world as an endangered place, unsafe for expatriates’ and foreign investors and in conducive for investment.  
• Quality Assurance. Okoli Noted that quality in higher education is multidimensional and embraces all functions and activities of universities including teaching, academics programmes, research and absolutely productivity, staffing, students, buildings, facilities and equipment¹⁷. Quality assurance in any university education has to do with efficiency and effectiveness in the running of every aspect of the institution. Therefore, with the above implies that Nigerian higher schools are victims of poor quality administration where every activity is chained due to lack of functional facilities entirely. According to World Bank noted that African universities are marked by inadequacies, lack of infrastructure, unprecedented corruption and mismanagement of public and private funds, thus the institution poor and incapacitated.

Conclusion

The desire of quality and standards in Nigerian education, especially this 21^st century demands for functional facilities at all levels of education. This will help teachers and students utilizes these facilities and equipment’s in schools to enhance productivity. Functional infrastructure will also help in terms of actualizing the aims and objectives of education as spelt out on the National Policy on Education. Considering the current issues of poor infrastructure in schools, the federal government needs to redouble her efforts on educational matters

The way forward

1. Government should make adequate funding of higher education and provision of needed infrastructure that would help students and staff in schools
2. The quality of higher education must not be compromised by over admission, over-crowdedness and multi-campus system
3. Basic infrastructural facilities should be provided in order to address major challenges in teaching and learning process
4. Development of high level of maintenance practice on the available facilities should be institutionalized. There is a need for implementation of a direct quality assurance program to ensure the maintenance standards are met.

End notes

1. T, Okotont C, A and Adebukin A, B. Perceived Quality of Infrastructure in selected Nigerian Universities. Journal of Higher Education in Nigeria. 2012 online reading.
2. Adegbesan S, O. Establishing Quality Assurance in Nigerian Education System. Implication for Educational Manager. Educational Research and Review. Vol. 6(2) retrieved 2-6-2022
3. Ibitamuno. M. A & Sunday D O. edited. Essay in honor of professor Joseph Donatos Okoh. 2015. P. 322
4. Ibid. p. 331
5. Ibid. p. 388
6. Ibib. P. 337
7. Robert J D & Paul O. Empowering Learning Society For Sustainability Through Quality Education. From my word 2015 http;//datamyword2015.org. accessed 29^th June 2023. P. 94
8. Ibib. P. 96
9. UNESCO. Rethinking Education, towards common global goals. 2015. P. 98
10. UNESCO. United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. International Implementation Scheme. 2005-2012. P. 99
11. Ibib. P. 102
12. Ibib. P. 110
13. Longnoe B. The Trouble With Nigerian Education And Other Analytical Essays. Published by Ehidero NIG. LTD, PLOT 2. Rukuba Road Jos, Plateau State. 1994. P. 84

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Abstract

The issue of funding of tertiary education has been a topic of debate over the years in Nigeria. This has caused several industrial actions by the different academic and non-academic staff unions of universities, polytechnics and colleges of education across the country. It appears that several options have been suggested and several others accepted as way forward. Yet, the problem is unsolved. The trust of this paper is that the development of alternative funding strategies is imperative in ensuring the financial autonomy and quality tertiary education in Nigeria. The writers of this paper submitted that for quality tertiary education to be attained there is need for tertiary education system to be less dependent on the statutory sources of funding and be able to fund tertiary education reasonably from alternative sources. The noted challenge in this paper is that the Nigerian governments overtime have shown more of lip-service than sincere commitment towards financial autonomy of the tertiary institutions as such has not reasonably supported alternative funding strategies as a way forward.  On this note, the writers suggested that the management of tertiary institution should be more proactive and relentless in discovering and developing alternative funding strategies to boast resource generation and management in tertiary institutions. Again, the federal and state government should show sincere commitment through legislations and implementation approaches to help the tertiary institutions to be more autonomous by supporting its strategies on alternative funding.

Keywords: Alternative funding Strategy, financial autonomy, Tertiary Education

Introduction

Education has been globally recognized as a veritable instrument for human and national development.  It has been universally agreed that through education the citizens are transformed and equipped to become functional members who will take up responsibilities toward the growth and development of that society. The important roles education play makes it paramount that the institutions responsible for the education of citizens must be equipped with human and material resources that will enable it carry out assigned tasks. It is not reasonably in doubt that finance or funding is a key determining factor to the success and failure of any education system. With funds available, administrators of tertiary education will find it easier to implement policies and execute programmes in line with mandates given to them by law. As much as we have noted that all levels of education needs adequate funding, it may not be out place to say that tertiary education needs more funding  because of expanded curriculum, researches, staff-personnel and student-personnel administration, library holdings, post-graduate programmes, remuneration, incentives, ceremonials, etc. Without adequate funding, it will be difficult to talk of quality tertiary education in Nigeria as well as in other country of the world. 

Quality tertiary education is realistic when there is availability and adequacy of well trained teaching and non-teaching staff, availability of infrastructural facilities and equipment, adequate staff development packages, adequate research sponsorship, responsive information and communication technology system to mention a few. All these aforementioned pre-requisite are obtainable only when funds are made sufficiently available and where collaboration and partnership exists.

Over the years the issue of funding has been a subject of discourse and a topic of debate between the federal and state governments and the Academic Staff Union of the Universities together with their counterparts in Polytechnics and Colleges of Education in Nigeria. This issue has long resulted in stakeholders clamouring for financial autonomy, arguing that the tertiary education should be made to be administratively and financially autonomous in all good sense of it.

However, it appears that both the contenders and the defenders of financial autonomy in tertiary education have not critically looked at the issue in more logical ways to define financial autonomy in the context on which it is been advocated or contended. Most often the issue of financial autonomy is perceived to be a situation where the tertiary institutions are left to manage its funds without undue interference instead of interrogating on the many components of financial autonomy. In this paper, the writers present an argument that developing alternative funding strategies is imperative for the realization of finical autonomy needed to achieve quality education in tertiary institutions in Nigeria.

Alternative funding strategies in this context suggest other planned sources of generating revenues outside the government subventions or allocation from government coffers as well as internally planned mechanisms for managing revenue without external interference. Since it is clear that quality education is not realistic without adequate funding and that government of Nigeria is not showing commitment to adequate funding of the tertiary education, the writers of this paper posit that there is need for the management of tertiary institutions and the government to collaboratively fashion out alternative funding strategies for the purpose of making the tertiary institutions financially autonomous and to have the financial capacity to promote quality of tertiary education in Nigeria.

Alternative Funding Strategy

Alternative funding strategies entails the making of plans, approaches or tactics towards creating and developing other sources of fund other than the known source. Ukabiala (2019) described alternative funding strategy as step-by-step construction of plans and programmes geared towards raising fund through internal sources for the purpose of undertaking or sustaining projects. Smith (2018) opined that alternative funding strategies involves systematic provision of blueprint in line with the philosophy, objectives, mandate and policies guiding an institution, organization or firm. Lewis (2018:17) noted the importance of alternative funding strategies when he submitted thus: “Beside the mainstream approaches, there is  need to explore alternative approaches to funding education for better efficiency, improving effectiveness and maintaining equity in education’’. Onyeche (2018) submitted that advocates of alternative strategies to funding tertiary education are soliciting for diverse process of raising funds for tertiary education just likes education loans, human capital contract, deregulation fees, graduate tax, income-contingent tax, education vouchers, cost recovery and sharing, among others. One can deduce therefore that alternative funding strategies for quality tertiary education in Nigeria would involve initiating means of collecting more funds and decreasing the unnecessary expenses to minimize the spending pattern of funds in tertiary education institutions.

Financial Autonomy

From the Greek etymology, autonomy connotes self rule; that is the capacity to make rules for one’s self without any external force. It refers to self regulation or independence. Nneji (2010) noted that the concept of autonomy has psychological, socio-political, metaphysical and ethical implications because individual autonomy exists where such has the ability to make decisions without influence by anyone else.Autonomy as a concept means the ability of one to take control of one’s own thing. It suggests the freedom and independence of one to take decisions and actions without undue interference. With regards to financial autonomy, Abaogu (2021) submitted that financial autonomy is the ability of a person or group to relating the concept to education sector, Stevenson (2021) described financial autonomy as the ability of educational institutions to freely decide on its internal financial affairs, generate and manage its funds independently.  One can deduce from the scholars views that financial autonomy in tertiary education involves generation and management of funds independent on mainstream source which is the government allocations and tuition fees.

Quality Education

Quality suggests excellence or up to set standard. It literarily referred to the standard of a phenomenon when it is compared to other things like it. Nzerem (2020) described quality as the ability or the degree to which a product, service or phenomenon conforms to an established standard and which makes it to be relatively superior to others.  Quality education therefore connotes the meeting of precepts or standard which have been set or defined by law, institutions, regulatory and professional societies. Ukoha (2019) posited that quality education entails relevance and appropriateness of the education programmes to the needs of the community which it is provided. In another view, Emezue (2017) described quality education as that which shows efficiency in meeting the goals, relevant to environmental need and conditions open to continual exploration of new ideas and pursue excellence and development of creative abilities of recipients. Fadokun(2016:12) characterized quality by three interrelated and interdependent strands viz:

(i) Efficiency in the meeting of its goals.

(ii) Relevance to human and environmental conditions and needs.

(iii) Something more to the exploration of new ideas, the pursuit of excellence and encouragement of creativity.

The definition of quality in education is often complex because of the difficulty in agreement among the various stakeholders of what constitutes quality in education. Harvey and Stensaker⁴ present five different ways of explaining quality to include:

• Quality as exceptional. Here quality is linked to excellence and usually operationalized as exceptionally high standards of academic achievement. Quality is attained if the required standards are met or exceeded.

• Quality as perfection or consistency. In this definition, quality implies zero defects and getting things right the first time. Quality in this sense is assumed not to apply to a learning situation except in the areas of consistency of academic judgment and reliability of management information.

• Quality as fitness for purpose. Here quality is judged by the extent to which it meets the specified purpose. It relates to customer requirements and satisfaction.

• Quality as value for money. Quality is accessed via returns on investment. The notion of accountability in education is brought into focus in this definition.

• Quality as transformation. Quality is viewed as a process of change. Education is conceived here as a transformation process which leads to qualitative change in the participants leading to their enhancement and empowerment.

Educational quality can be defined in terms of the inputs, processes and outputs. If a society is committed to providing high quality educational experiences and consequences for every person, the resources (human and financial) need to be mobilized in this direction.

 Quality of tertiary education would therefore suggest that content of education, the teacher training and welfare, instructional delivery, funding, research development, and overall teaching and learning activities meet globally acceptable standard.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education which can also be referred to as higher education entails the level of education which is provided for after the secondary level of education. Osaat and Oputa (2018) referred tertiary education as the optional final stage of formal education that occurs after secondary education. The definition given by Osaat and Oputa suggests that one has an option of proceeding to tertiary education after secondary education or not. In another point of view, Pai (2018) perceived education as the bedrock of human capital development of every nation and one of the most significant indicators of social progress. He further submitted that tertiary education does a consolidatory role in transforming the natural man into an economically, politically, and socially useful and viable member of the society.  The definition or submission made by Pai is agreeable because the foundation of the child’s education is laid at the early childhood (pre-primary and primary) stages, developed, streamlined and focused at the secondary level and consolidated upon at the tertiary level. In other words, the tertiary level of education is designed refine, equip and fully empower recipients with knowledge and skills with which they can function effectively and contribute meaningfully to the development of their immediate and extended environments.

Discussion

An important step towards solving any envisaged problem is the adoption of workable and applicable measures. At any time in any situation where problem is posed, there is need to systematically address such problem to avoid its re-occurrence. In recent times, concerned Nigerians, especially the academia is beginning to express worry over the gap that exists in terms of quality in Nigerian education system at all levels. This worry has triggered continual advocacy for an improved tertiary education in Nigeria. Of course Nigeria ought not to leave any stone unturned in ensuring high quality education of its citizens because globalization has introduced competitions. The implication is therefore that if nothing is done to improve the quality of education generally and tertiary education in particular, Nigeria citizens would find it difficult to fit in the scheme of things in such a globalized world.  Quality tertiary education involves inputs, processes and outputs. Scholars have lamented fallen standard of Nigerian education at various forum and this fallen standard is reflecting daily in the products of our educational institutions most of whom have not exhibited the attributes expected of the recipients of qualityeducation. Ekejelem (2020) assessed the extent to which educational provisions is commensurate to the quality of graduates of our higher institutions education and revealed that much gap still exist between tertiary educational institutions and other sectors of Nigeria economy.  Discussing further his findings, he stressed that the recipients of higher education are expected to proffer solutions to problems that are inherent in the circular world, the nation and the other smaller units of the society, which could be economic, political, technological or social cultural in nature. Ability to proffer solutions to these problems connotes bridging of manpower gap needed for national development. He observed that these gaps are unclosed in Nigeria as she still spends reasonable amount of her resources on foreign expertise and goods.

The crux of the matter is that for the human and material resources to be mobilized towards attainment of quality education, adequate funding is imperative. On a very worrisome note, the problem of poor funding of tertiary education in Nigeria has become a recurring decimal. Poor funding is noticeable in most tertiary education institutions as it reflects on the deplorable state of infrastructure characterized by poor and inadequate physical facilities, unavailability of current technological facilities and poor maintenance of the existing ones. This situation has posed serious challenge to meeting the mandate of providing quality tertiary education in Nigeria.  If not carefully addressed, there could be worsened case of students being deprived of proper training in a well prepared learning environment; and the result would be that the tertiary institutions in Nigeria will be unable produce well trained, productive and employable graduates .

The continuous dependence on the government to fund the tertiary education has contributed more to the sorry state of infrastructural facilities, instructional delivery, research culture and overall human resource development in the universities, polytechnics and colleges of education. These limitations in the mainstream approaches to funding education are seriously affecting sufficiency and continuity in providing quality education for young Nigerians in the tertiary education system. How long shall the tertiary education institutions remain financially dependent? When will the financial autonomy in the tertiary education system be a reality?  These are emergent issues in funding of tertiary education.

The minister of special duties and inter-governmental affairs, Zaphaniah Jisalo disclosed on 27^th convocation of the University of Abuja where he represented president Bola Tinubu stressed that the present administration was proposing financial autonomy for tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This financial autonomy he noted would promote growth in the nation’s education sector in line with “the renewed hope agenda. The minister added that when this agenda is made a reality, it will encourage tertiary institutions to source funds through grants and corporate sponsorship, promote self-sustainability and reduce dependency on the federal government. In other word, the current Nigerian government has perceived or have awaken to the fact that financial autonomy is one of the key ways for improving the quality of tertiary education. While getting excited about this proposals, there are questions to asked and they include: (a) is the government of Nigeria just realizing the essence of financial autonomy in education sector now? (b) Is this proposal one of those empty political statements that would never be implemented? (c) Are there modalities on ground to achieve these? Just to ask a few questions. Until we get satisfactory answers to these questions coupled with actions, we may not need to rejoice yet.

Financial autonomy no doubt will make institutions to effectively manage funds to enhance competitiveness, strive for excellence, and eradicate constant disruption caused by strike which is the case in Nigeria till date. The present Government have also stressed in its manifesto that quality education for all is the central target of the renewed hope agenda, it has also expressed at different forum its commitment to hasting the delivery of quality education by implementing policies that prioritize technological-base learning resources, administration standards and quality assurance.  These are laudable proposal but financial autonomy in tertiary education is a more serious issue that requires pragmatic approach to achieve. First, the government must be intentional about promoting quality education and appropriately fund it. If there is no such sincere intention, then the proposal will be like many other proposals earlier made but were never fulfilled.

The position of the authors in this discourse is that for financial autonomy to be a reality in tertiary education in Nigeria there is need for alternative funding strategies that would enhance alternative resources generation and management for the improvement and maintenance of infrastructural facilities and overall administration in Nigeria’s tertiary institutions. However, the management of the tertiary institutions has major roles to play in developing and sustaining alternative funding strategies and promoting financial autonomy in tertiary education.

The points is that for the management of tertiary institutions to develop alternative funding strategies, there is need for mutual agreement with the government and major stakeholders; there is also need for collaboration and partnership with private sector and individuals. Where the problem lies in Nigerian experience is the political will by the government to support the ideas and alternative funding strategies of the management of tertiary institution through legislations and executive approvals. The incessant industrial actions by the Academic Staff Union of the Universities (ASSU) as well as those of Polytechnics and Colleges of Education over the years had bothered on poor funding and poor workers welfare. These lingered problems would have long ended if alternative funding strategies are developed, critically discussed and implemented. One cannot boast of financial autonomy where the management of tertiary institutions depends on tuition fees and government subventions for its day-to-day educational administration. Begin from November 4^th 2023; the National University Commission (NUC) will begin another round of programme accreditation all in universities all over the nation. This accreditation exercise has been conducted over many decades yet the outcome has not reflected in improved quality of universities. The reason being that most often the university management is compelled to lie to cover up by borrowing certain equipments even personnel to satisfy the expectations of the NUC and at the end, the realities will still stark the management of tertiary education in the face

It is not out of place for the tertiary institutions to operate functional school farms, recycling factory, confessionary outfit, entertainment and arts unit, event centers, water making factories, etc as alternative means of internally generated revenue. It is also not wrong for tertiary institutions to access loans for investments. The issue is whether they will have the legislative and executive backup to venture into these?.  If the federal and state governments in Nigeria will be willing, sincere and show committed to support alternative funding proposals and initiatives of the management of tertiary institutions through favourable legislations and executive actions, the issue of financial autonomy can be guaranteed and when adequate funds are made available, necessary provisions would easily be made and the quality of tertiary education would then be guaranteed.

Conclusion

Education is the bedrock of any type of development in any nation. Nigeria as a nation has acknowledged the importance of education but facts on ground is truly placing doubt as to whether the nation is really serious with the business of using education to achieve human resource development and consequent National development. The point here is that the need to improve the quality of tertiary education has been heightened by globalization and its demands on nations’ education. Nigerians ought not to be left out.  Like the popular saying goes ‘‘good food is a product of good money’’, there is no way quality of tertiary education can be improved without adequate funding.  Since it is clear that the Nigerian government at all levels finds it difficult to adequately fund tertiary education, there is therefore the need to give room for financial autonomy in tertiary education. Importantly also, the issue of financial autonomy of the tertiary institutions will remain a mirage without development, critical assessment of modalities and implementation of alternative funding strategies. Alternative funding strategies can also not work without legislative and executive support on the side of the government. Here is therefore a call for swift action and collaboration by the government and management of tertiary institutions in Nigeria to initiate, develop, support and implement alternative funding strategies as way of promoting financial autonomy and improve quality tertiary education in Nigeria.

Suggestions

1.         A steering committee should be set up in all tertiary institutions in Nigeria to undertake task of initiating ideas and work out modalities on implementing alternative funding strategies for each institution.

2.         The federal and state governments in Nigeria should show sincere commitment through legislations and implementation approaches to help the tertiary institutions to be more autonomous by supporting its strategies on alternative funding.

3.         Governments should in addition to subvention explore other means of providing the tertiary institutions with the necessary facilities and equipment which are capital intensive as a way of encouraging quality education at that level.

4.         The management of tertiary institutions should be more prudent and proactive in managing available funds in order to encourage government to provide more funds.

References

Abaogu, M.O. (2021). Autonomy in Education: Emergent issues and way forward. Journal of Contemporary Education in Nigeria. Volume 2 (4), pp 66-72.

Ekejelem, L. O. (2020). Blending quality and quantity in Nigeria education: administrative and legislative implications. Journal of contemporary education. Volume 2 (4), pp 99-104.

Emezue, I.E. (2017). Pragmatic steps to enhancing quality of instructional delivery in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Journal of Educational Research and Development.  Volume 4 (10), pp 22-29.

Lewin, K. M. (2018). Strategies for Sustainable Financing of Secondary Education Educational System in Nigeria. Journal of Social. Science Education. Volume 14(1): pp 81-86.

Nneji, B.U. (2010), Philosophy of education: An introductory approach. Owerri: Mercy Divine Publishers.

Nzerem, V.N. (2020). Quality assurance in Nigerian tertiary institutions: the management approach. Journal of Education and Human Resource Development. Volume 2 (6), pp 55-62.

Osaat, S.D & Oputa, C.C (2018). Globalization of higher education and Nigeria’s national philosophy. In Globalization of higher education and advancement of sustainable development goals, Book of readings in honour of Okoli, N.K.  Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Pai, A.O (2018). Emergent issues in Nigeria’s tertiary education and Global demand. Journal of Higher Education and Research Development. Volume 2 (2), pp 33-41.

Smith, J. (2018). Alternative resource generation and management of institutions in developing nations. New York: Prewvile publication coy.

Ukabiala, J. (2019). Alternative Sources of revenue for educational institutions: The management approach. Onitsha: Whitestone Publishers.

Ukoha, G.A. (2019). Quality –quantity gap in Nigerian education: A review of strategies. Owerri: Springboard Publications Limited.

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Abstract        

The purpose of this study is to examine the dilemmas of parents of children living with disabilities in Nigeria and how through the instrumentality of educational intervention, both parents and their children can be helped. The study relied on secondary data, observation and interaction with parents of such children.Living with disability in Nigeria has been described as nightmare. This is due to cultural and traditional perceptions of members of the society about their plight. While developed countries of the world are supporting people with special needs not only to cope with their challenges but also to rise beyond their plights to become functional members of the society, their counterparts in Nigeria are suffering from neglects and gross discrimination. Apart of the victim themselves, the other set of people most affected by this are the parents and families of people living with disabilities. There is an increasing call for inclusive education for both learners with special needs and the other learners in the main stream school. Advocates for inclusive system believe that special schools are discriminatory and will not help them integrate properly into the society. Little or nothing is being done in Nigeria to achieve this. Mainstream schools reject learners with special needs and special schools are not affordable, where they are affordable; they do little to help the learners overcome their challenges. It is also found that Parents of children with special needs or disabilities go through a lot of trauma and frustration as they seek help for their children. This is because discrimination and traditional beliefs are affecting them. The study recommends government intervention by educating the public on the causes of disability rather than attributing it to some mystical causes or as consequences for violating a taboo. Government also needs to invest in the training of teachers, care givers to be well equipped to help learners. Provision of modern facilities to help schools admit learners with special needs in order to help cater effectively for their needs. This should be another means of achieving quality, equality, inclusivity and access to education in Nigeria.

Keywords: Dilemmas, Special Need, Educational Intervention

Introduction

The situation of people with physical and learning disabilities more than ever before has become a great reason for concern, especially in developing countries.  Nigeria has a population of over 140 million people.  Out of these people, UNDP 2004 World Population Prospects in Smith (n.d) stated that 14 million live with one form of disability or the other.  Categories of disabilities common in Nigeria according to Schneidder in Deepak et al (2017) include seeing, hearing, speaking, moving around; learning disability which include inability to comprehend, inability to reach out to object, hold or grip.  These and many other disabilities posse great challenge to one’s ability to be educated or become of help to themselves and the community in which they live. The Federal Ministry of Education (2015) admitted that although Nigeria is making efforts at providing special Needs Education but the practice falls short of best practice when compared to what is obtainable in other parts of the world.  The practice is not harnessing technological advantage to help people with disabilities.  There are little or no human and material resources to cater for the people with special needs education.

Aboluwade (2018) stated that living with disability in Nigeria is a nightmare, not only for the victims, but the entire family. Parents of children with disabilities and people with disabilities face serious dilemmas in Nigeria and these problems are threatening access to educational intervention.   The way parents, society, government and other children react to people with disability determines whether or not any government policies or educational intervention will be successful. This work looks at how prevailing societal beliefs, culture and tradition pose threats to the realization of inclusive educational intervention for people with disabilities. Children with disabilities are highly stigmatized in Nigeria.  This accounts for why many parents would not want to take their children to mainstream schools.  Depending on the physical severity of disability, many parents still prefer to send their kids to special schools where they can meet with children with similar challenges only to avoid stigmatization.  All these and more are dilemmas faced by both parents of children with disabilities and the children themselves, and this is affecting the realization of any educational intervention. The purpose of this work is to evaluate the various challenges militating against inclusive educational programme for people with disabilities in Nigeria and recommend measures on how all these dilemmas can be handled so as not to affect the education of people with special needs.  The work relies on observations, interviews, personal experiences, books, journal articles and other important government and non-governmental documents, data and information gathering.

Perception of Nigerians about disability

Except for very educated people in the area of health and disability, many people, especially in developing countries like Nigeria have negative perception about people with disabilities.  Analysing the situation in Ghana, Tijm, Cornielje and Edusei (2011) noted that family members of people with disabilities consider them as people of no value to their families or society.  This in many cases leads to rejection, exclusion and discrimination.  In Nigeria, being disabled is like a death sentence.  Both parents and siblings do not care about them.  When the family goes out for leisure, the child with disability is locked in the house lonely and miserable until they return. In social gathering, people with disabilities are not always welcome. They are discriminated against even in the area of task that their disability does not prevent them from doing. According to Carlson (2013) one may never understand what discrimination really means until you are at the receiving end.  We will generally say that discrimination means to be avoided, rejected or not given the recognition one deserves, but it goes beyond that.  It means to be cruelly mistreated and ostracized. Many people with disabilities share their experiences in the society.

Carlson said that she never understood what discrimination really was until she was 14 years old after her spinal cord injury from a diving accident which led to her disability.  She said that on a daily basis, people with disability face discrimination in public places that have employees; five out of ten employees believe that people with physical disabilities are mentally ill-equipped.  As if their physical disability has affected every good thing about them.  At the grocery store, they attend to disabled people with so much reluctance, fearing they may not have the money to pay for what they are ordering.  This can be very frustrating.  They also complain that vehicles pass them by despite all attempt to call for their services, “not wanting to deal with our extra needs” says Tiffiny.  Many countries and architects are still not aware or are refusing to accept the fact that people with disabilities are also members of the society with equal rights and privileges.  Architectural designs and buildings have deprived people with disability access to certain places.  No provision is made in many public places for people who use wheel chairs. This is a subtle way of saying they are not needed here. 

Religions Perspectives on disabilities

When one is rejected and discriminated against in the society, the next place they want to take solace is in the loving arm of religion.  Snow (n.d) stated that philosophically, places of religious worship such as churches, synagogues and the like should have been “havens of inclusion” for the disabled and handicapped, but it is really not so as we expect.  Where some of them are allowed into the church, they are quarantined in a corner of the church where cameras cannot show them. Fellow members of churches may not want to stay or seat close to a person with disability.  This is not what we read about Jesus, the very head of the Christian faith.  He calls all, helped the helpless, healed the disabled-blind, lame, lunatic, etc. Shouldn’t his followers emulate him and make people with disability feel loved and welcome? Regrettably, even many church private schools do not admit their own members with physical disability. Suffice to say then that the church may have worsened the plight of people with disabilities.

In Judaism, persons with any form of disability are not fit to be priest or to even appear before the symbolic presence of God. From different biblical accounts, it appears that people with disability were excluded from public life.  David in (2 Samuel 9:3ff) thought that Saul and Jonathan were not survived by anyone, until Ziba told him that Jonathan’s son, Mephibosheth was still very much alive with what sound like a stigmatizing qualification “which is lame on his feet”.  Even though he was a prince, but because of his disability, he had to live far from public glare.  Blanks and Smith (2009) are of the opinion that Jonathan’s son was not a threat to David kingship because his obvious physical disability has legally excluded him from ever becoming a king.  Israel’s kings were able-bodied.  No disabled person has ever ruled Israel as a nation as far as biblical records reveals.  They were to be fit because of the fact that all kings in Israel went out for war with the armies. 

On the part of Islam, Blanks and Smith (2009) have described the religion as the most inclusive of people with disabilities.  Islam believes that God (Allah) is perfect and does not create imperfect human.  It believes that their condition is the will of God and no human should go against God’s will.  This is perhaps, responsible for why we see so much of disabled people on the streets of Northern Nigeria.  This region of the country is dominated by Muslims.  They have so much regard for people with disability in such a way that it does not help them become self reliant.  Vast majority of them, rather than the government encouraging them to go to school or learn a skill for self reliance, they are allowed to go around the streets and neighbourhood begging for food and money.  Because Islam is also a very generous religion with the command of the Holy Quran to help the poor and disabled, people with disability enjoy begging for alms.  Attempts by some state government to clear them from the road and empower them were met with stiff resistance.

While Judaism and the Christian Old Testament scriptures set limits to the extent a person with disabilities should participate in religious and public life, Islamic laws as stipulated by the Holy Quran calls for the involvement of people with disabilities in both social and religious life without fear of contacting or being infected with such disabilities.  In Islam according to Miles in Blanks and Smith (2009) one’s disability does not religiously or socially define him or her.  It is not too clear whether Islam support attempts, medically or otherwise to correct or help people with disability become normal.  This may look like a mortal man trying to alter the will of God, since according to Islam God intentionally created them that way. 

This also has great implications for medical and educational intervention.  So as to answer what Islam has to say about treatment of disability. Though its position about disability as the will of God creates the impression that any form of treatment will amount to violating God’s will, Ghaly (2008) stated that Islam fully support the treatment of ailment or disabilities.  There were ancient Muslim Physicians who see medicine as an important medium to bring someone close to God.  According to Qaradawi in Ghaly (2008), Alshafi’I was thus quoted. “Do not live in a place where you have no scholar to inform you about your religion and no physician to inform you about your body”. (Al-shafi’I in Ghaly 2008).  If this is the case, Islam should necessarily come to terms with the fact that disability like other ill health conditions are deviation from what is normal.  If we say something is in its perfect state, you do not do anything to correct what is already perfect.  Disability is not a perfect condition; some can be treated while others can be managed to help the individuals master their conditions and become independent of others’ help. 

Cultural/Traditional beliefs about disabilities

Culture and traditional beliefs still have great influence on how Africans interpret or define events and occurrences.  We may think that education has eroded many of these beliefs, but it hasn’t.  One of the most difficult ideas to erase from the hearts of people is culture/traditions that are rooted in belief.  Traditional beliefs about the causes of disabilities are one of the biggest challenges that are confronting any action towards helping people with disabilities.  A person living in any community in Nigeria does not need any literature to see the different diagnosis given by traditional healers on the cause of disabilities. When a child with disability is born, parents in some traditional setting are made to take the child to a traditional healer to state what the problem is and what was responsible for such birth.  Depending on the type and severity of the condition, the traditionalist may say that the family has violated a taboo, or the child is evil and have been sent to cause destruction in the land and must be banished at once. For example, MacDonald and Butera (n. d) state that the Nandi people of Kenya believe that it was a taboo for a husband to have sex with his wife during pregnancy as that will result in physical deformity in the child. Some are attributed to reincarnation.  A very wicked man in his previous life has been born to pay for his wicked deeds in the first life.    Among the Igala people in Nigeria, when a child is born deformed or with some mysterious ailment, it may be because the woman had committed adultery.

A classic example is the ancient Yoruba mythology ‘Abiku’. It literarily means to give birth and the child dies. In her review of Abiku by Wole Soyinka, Alabere (2016) stated that Abikus are spirits who may be having spiritual families in the invisible world.  These spirits are hungry and since no one offers sacrifices to them, they come into families by birth and at the peak of happiness they die after making the parents go through some hardship.  While some of the frequent deaths of children in such families may be as a result of sickle cell anaemia, but are attributed to some mysterious occurrences.  The United Nations’ Department of Economic and social Affairs (n.d). Corroborate that many Nigerians believe that disability is as a result of either curse from God or disobedience to ancestral laws, family sin, witchcrafts activities, misfortune, etc.  All these make parents of children with disability hide them from public glare or even kill them in order to avoid the shame.

Eskay, et al (2012) stressed the importance of studying a culture before proposing any intervention.  This is because the culture in which persons with disabilities live determines the place or position given to them.  According to them, one of the biggest problems faced by children with disabilities is misunderstanding and misrepresentation of their conditions.  It is the misunderstanding that has led to the negative treatments meted out on them.  To this effect, aggressive awareness campaign must be carried out in order to correct the negative attribute of the society.  Some children with disabilities have taken their own lives because they cannot stand the emotional trauma resulting from the negative attitude against them.  In such a culture, how many children will be willing to go to school?

Another factor that leads to negative attitudes towards people with disabilities is ignorance.  The reason why some members of the society discriminate against people with disabilities is not because of religion, cultural, or traditional beliefs, but pure ignorance.  Persons may be well educated but since they do not know the cause of the condition, they want to keep it at a distance.  When a person does not know that untreated infection of a pregnant woman could lead to blindness of the baby, may think that some mysterious event must be responsible.  Some parents never knew the existence of certain disease or deformity until they are born into their family. One of the causes of deformity at birth is attributed to genetic factor, where either of the parents passes onto their babies genetic abnormalities.  According to Healthline (2017) this occurs when a gene is flawed as a result of a mutation or change. In other instance, it may be that part of a gene is missing.  Healthline admit that some causes of abnormalities are difficult or even impossible to identify but certain lifestyles increase the chances of giving birth to defective children.  Such behaviours include drinking alcohol, smoking, illegal substance such as drugs during pregnancy.  Others are excessive exposure to viruses and toxic chemicals. 

Knowledge of these will change people’s negative attitude to people with disabilities.  In Nigeria, all odds are against people with disabilities, especially children who have the potentials to change their fortune, if necessary, help and support are given.  The resultant culture according to Kolawole (2016) has robbed this group of Nigerians their rights to the dignity of human person despite their challenges and the opportunity to contribute their own quota to the development of their country.  This is happening not because there are no laws or legal documents that specify the rights of these people, but their rights continue to be violated because there is no pragmatic efforts by the government to protect them.  Efforts by international community through various instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Salamanca Statements among others have not yielded the desired results.

Parents and Family Reactions to Children with Disabilities

Finding out that your child has a disability can be very traumatizing.  Imaging a family expecting the birth of their first child, only for them to be greeted with the sight of a physically deformed child. Logsdon (2018) believed that such situation is one of most serious stressors for the parents. One cannot exactly explain how parents of children with and disabilities feel, especially when the disability will require that another person takes care support the child for the rest of his life.  According to Logsdon (2018), ccommon reactions of parents include denial, anger, grief and eventual relief.  Many times, parents refuse to accept any diagnosis that their children have any learning disability, especially when the disability is not an obvious physical handicap. They give excuses why their children are not doing well academically.  It is common to see parents telling the school that they are not doing enough to help the child’s academic challenges. They go as far as changing school for their wards to prove their point. Some parents accuse their children of being too lazy and that is what is responsible for their setback.

Many of such parents display obvious anger against the school, their children, teachers and whoever comes their way. When eventually they come to understand the problem of their child through empirical evidence, what follows is grief.  They are grieved as if they have lost a child.  The dream of every parent is to see their child grow into becoming a responsible, functional and successful adult member of the society. Grief may occur throughout life as long as the problem persists.  Rejection, anger and grief may continue, especially when parents do not know what the problem really is with their child.  During an interview with a young mother who gave birth to a collodion baby, she was asked to talk about how she felt having such a baby.  She explained that before the birth of the boy, she had never heard, read or seen a collodion baby all her life.  The doctor who conducted the delivery said that he had never seen such a thing in his life.  They went from one hospital to another in search of not just the solution, but what the problem is.  They went to four hospitals in a major city in Nigeria, but the doctors did not know what the condition was.  A friend directed them to a paediatrician whom on sighting the baby, exclaimed “Ah this is a collodion baby!”.  The mother of the baby felt great relief just to know that the condition has a name and there are people who have gone through and are still going through the condition.  Others feel better to know that there is a remedy for the problem.

Siblings of children with disabilities are not left out.  The knowledge that a family member has a disability affects the other siblings.  Ritchie (2013) reported that siblings exhibit feeling of shame and embarrassment to be associated with someone with disability.  They feel rejected and abandoned because all the care of the mother is given to their brother with disability. Some of them are afraid they could be affected by the disability or they may be carrying the gene and one day, they may give birth to a deformed child.  In some Nigerian homes, it is common to see a child being deprived of education in order to stay at home to take care of a brother or sister who has disability. While the parents go out to provide for the needs of the family one of the children stays back continually at home to care for the incapacitated brother or sister.  In Nigerian society where traditional and cultural beliefs place a stigma on people with disabilities, siblings suffer a lot of embarrassing situations. They can be socially isolated and stigmatized in school and community by their peers.  Only very few persons are willing to be their friends. This goes a long way to negatively affect their academic achievement.  They are always sad that people treat them the way they do because of their sibling.  Sometimes, they go through more emotional trauma than the child having the disability. It is common in Africa, especially in Nigerian communities to find a husband divorcing his wife for giving birth to a child with disability. A study on Down syndrome conducted in Israel as reported by Ritchie (2013) showed that 25% of families abandon their children in the hospital.  This is how much disability can tear families apart, devastate individuals and deprive others of a successful future.

Learners with Disabilities in School

It is important to state here that the prevailing cultural practices and beliefs in a society cannot be divorced from its educational system. The negative attitudes towards people with disability are being imported into the school.  Even in the developed countries of the West where inclusive education has been a subject on the front burner of their educational research for many decades, Boer, Piji and Minnaert (2012) stated that some children with disabilities still find it very difficult to be accepted by peers or school. Considering researches on student’s behavioural intentions towards peers with disabilities, Boer, Pijl and Minnaert reported that many students held neutral behavioural intentions towards students.  This shows the extent of awareness in such societies and the students in particular.  It is either they were neutral towards them or they displayed positive attitude towards the students with disabilities.  The case is different in developing countries.  Due to the general negative or unwelcome attitudes towards students with disabilities, many of those children do not go to school.  Many parents do not even send them to school due to shame and that the child may be abused and ridiculed. Parents of children with disabilities and the children themselves do not like to be steered at when they go out.

Teachers’ attitude towards inclusion and students with disabilities is a big factor to consider if inclusion will be a success in any school.  Different studies reveal that while some teachers favour inclusion, some opposed the idea.  For instance, Florian in Dukmak (2013) reported that many regular classroom teachers objected to the inclusion of learners with special educational needs as that will either slow down other learner or even disrupt the effectiveness of their lessons. Indeed, depending on the severity of the condition, severe disability can indeed slow down the pace of other learners in a situation every learner has to be carried along. However, in a situation where the goal is not that all students must study at the same pace, inclusion is possible. Other teachers believe it is the best way to help learners with disabilities.  Results of a study carried out on Greek teachers by Zoniou-sideri and Vlachou, 2006 as reported by Kukmak (2013) stated that teachers believe that inclusive education is a better way of improving students’ relationship with children with disabilities. It helps to reducing discrimination, marginalization and stigmatization of such children.  However, they believe that children with learning disabilities can be better help in certain areas of their learning when they are separated.  Ordinarily, majority of teachers will not support inclusive education system for learners with disabilities, this is because it is hard work, and efforts to carry the slow learners along may frustrate and drag the smart learners.  Not too many researches are available regarding teachers’ attitude towards children with disability in inclusive classroom generally in Nigeria.  However, from the few works available and observation from inspections, unpublished data and reactions of teachers in such classroom, one can have an idea of what their attitudes are.  Fakolade, Adeniyi and Tella (2009) in a research conducted in Nigerian on teachers’ attitudes to inclusive educational programme found out that female teachers have more positive disposition to children with disabilities in a general school.  Teachers who are married have more positive attitude to inclusion of students with special needs in a mainstream school than unmarried ones.  This may not be unconnected with the fact that mothers and women are more empathic than men and unmarried women.  More so, they reported that most of the negative attitude of teachers is as a result of lack of knowledge and training.

Other Barriers to Inclusive Education in Nigeria

Beside the challenges confronting inclusive education for people with disabilities that have been discussed above, other barriers are institutional and government related problems.  A major problem is funding.  For a long time, budgetary allocation to education has been grossly insufficient for its operation.  Educational practitioners have on a yearly basis lamented over the poor funding of education in Nigeria. One of the major reasons why education in Nigeria has not been able to compete favourably with other countries is due to the poor attitude of government in funding.  In 2015 for instance, 12.46% of the total budget was allocated to the Federal Ministry of Education, but was cut down to 7.04% in 2018 despite increase in the general budget (Budgit, 2018). In 2012, 9.86% of the total budget was allocated, in 2013, it was 10.21%, 2014 has 12.05%, in 2015, 12.46% was allocated; 2016 got 9.17%, 2017 was given 7.31% and in 2018, it was further reduced to 7.04%.  A casual look at the figures shows a very sharp decrease in 2016 under a new government and since then, it has been crumbling.  These figures do not show commitment on the part of government to make education succeed in the country. There is also the monster called corruption in Nigeria that swallows funds meant for good things.  Individuals in positions of leadership divert money meant for development.  This is greatly affecting the quality of education delivery in Nigeria.

Implications

The implications of all the dilemmas enumerated in this work for inclusive educational intervention are glaring.  The situations have kept children and adults with disabilities out of school.  Many cannot stand the humiliation created by the prevailing cultural, religious and traditional beliefs about people with disabilities.  Where parents are willing to send their disabled children to school, schools are ill-equipped to meet their needs.  It is on this premise that Oladele, Ogunwale and Dafwat (2016) lamented that even though the Nigerian National Policy on Education appears viable but has not been able to provide inclusive educational opportunities for people with disabilities. Very importantly in the case of how disabled are treated, is the fact that its has a serious implication on the government educational intervention programme to the extent that quality, equality, inclusivity and accessibility to education cannot be achieved in an appreciable level in Nigeria. 

The Way Forward

Successful inclusion of people with disabilities in mainstream schools requires a lot in Nigeria.  First is to be able to create an atmosphere where people with disabilities can be willing to attend school.  There is need for cultural and traditional reorientation.  The Nigerian National Orientation agency must take the lead role in the awareness campaign.  Members of the Nigerian public must be educated on the causes of disabilities.  It will really take concerted and persistent effort to achieve this, because when beliefs are internalized, logical reasoning becomes difficult.  There was a time in Nigeria when Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) was a serious problem. One can recall how the government through various media was able to halt the barbaric practice. In the same vein, government and non-governmental organizations can take up campaign against discrimination against people with disabilities.  Laws that protect the rights and privileges of people with disabilities should be revived.  Public or private schools that refuse to admit people with disabilities should be sanctioned.  Parents should be encouraged not to hide their children, but release them to go to regular schools.  Audio, visual, print and social media in different languages should be employed.

There is also acute shortage of information about inclusive education practices among educational practitioners; teachers, school administrators and school owners in Nigeria. Oladele, Ogunwale and Dafwat (2016) noted that very few teachers are aware of inclusive educational practice.  They lamented that participants in the study who are supposed to be at the fore-front of advocacy for inclusion are ignorant of the concept, practice and importance of inclusive education. If teachers are this ignorant, what will one expect from the members of the public?

There is need for training and retraining of teachers for the task of inclusive education.  This is because many teachers believe that having learners with disability in the regular school makes teaching very difficult and stressful.  Most teachers recommend special schools for learners with disabilities.  Training should include strategies for individualized teaching, full knowledge of the disabilities and soft skills such as patience, empathy and love for such learners.

There is also need for increased funding.  This is because there will be need to equip classrooms with technological aids to teaching and learning to help learns with disabilities.  The need for reconstruction, renovation and reorganization of classroom will definitely arise to cater for the needs of divergent learners.  Ashi, Olayi and Ikwen (2015) asserted that provision of services for people with disabilities are quite expensive and encouraged government, philanthropists, agencies and other organizations to lend helping hands in the provision of all it takes to help special need learners. Other learners should not only be educated about the fact that disabilities are part of human existence, they should also be taught empathy and tolerance.

Conclusion

The dilemmas of parents of children living with disabilities and the children themselves in Nigeria are enormous.  They are being restricted and marginalized from all angles.  The society appears to be very unfriendly to their plight. Culture, tradition and religious beliefs are not providing comfort for them.  These and many more have forced parents to keep their children at home or prefer to take them to special schools where they meet the children of their kind and where no one will reproach them as a result of their disabilities. Some of the problems are institutional.  Regular schools are not willing to accept children with disabilities into their schools because they believe they do not have the facilities to cater for them.  Their reasons are subjects for consideration.  What is the cost of having a school that can accommodate and effectively cater for all categories of learners, including those with disabilities?  The government should be able to provide fund for public schools in order to provide teaching and learning facilities for all kinds of learners.  Schools that are owned and managed by private individuals without financial support from government may find it extremely difficult to run an inclusive classroom system of education.  This is because many of such schools in Nigeria do not have the fund to do that and it will be injustice to prosecute such institutions.  It also implies that the cost of education in an inclusive schools and classroom will become very high and expensive so that poor parents cannot afford it. For instance, a school that will accommodate children with physical and complex medical needs must be equipped with modern gadgets and well-trained teachers to deliver success.  Medical facilities in such schools will go beyond mere nursing services as seen in regular schools.  The cost of education will not remain the same, except the government is willing and ready to invest heavily in education by subsidizing its cost and providing necessary modern facilities and environment.

References

Aboluwade, A. (2018). Living with Disability in Nigeria is a Nightmare.     https://tribuneonlineng.com/living-with-disability-in-nigeria-is-a-nightmare/

Alabere, R., (2016) A review of ‘Abiku’ by Wole Soyinka. https://zodml.org/blog/review-abiku-wole-soyinka#.W22ld8JrzIU

Ashi, M. M., Olayi, J. E., & Ikwen, E. U. (2015) Overcoming disability: Pathway to inclusive roles for persons with disabilities in Nigeria. International Journal of Vocational and Technical Educational Research 1(3) 39-44.

BBC (2017) Babies join primary school lessons to help teach empathy.  https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-wales-22480495

Blanks, A. B. & Smith, J. D. (2009) Multiculturalism, religion, and disability: Implication for Special Education Practitioners. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities 44(3) 295 – 303.

Boer, A. Pijl, S. T. & Minnaert, a. (2012) Students’ attitudes towards peers with disabilities: A review of the literature.  International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 59 (4) 379 – 392.

Budgit (2018) Public education financing: Issues and recommendations.  www.yourbudgit.com/wp…/Public-Education-Financing-Issues-and-Recommendations.pdf

Carlson, T. (2013) 6 Instances of discrimination people with disability face every day.  https://www.huffingtonpost.com/tiffiny-carlson/discrimination-people-disabilities-_b_4509393.html

Deepak, S., Ortali, F., Halls, G. M. Damdinsuren, T., LhagvaJav, E. Msowoya, S., Qutteina, M., & Kumar, J. (2017) Disability data collection in Community-based rehabilitation.  https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314185031_REVIEWS_Disability_Data_Collection_in_Community-based_Rehabilitation

Dukmaks, S. (2013) Regular classroom teachers’ attitude towards including students with disabilities in the regular classroom in the United Arab Emirates. The Journal of Human Resource and Adult Learning. 9(1) 26 – 39.

Eskay, M., Onu, V., Igbo, J. N., Obiyo, N., & Ugwuanyi, L. (2012) Disability within the African Culture. US – China Education Review B(4).  https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED533575.pdf

Fakolade, O. A., Adeniyi, S. O., & Tella, A. (2009) Attitude of teachers towards the inclusion of special needs children in general education classroom:  The case of teachers in some selected schools in Nigeria. International Electronics Journal of Elementary Education 1(3) 155-169. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26624635

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Abstract

What informed the discourse in this paper is the disconcerting discovery that some governments of developing nations (of which Nigeria is one) are not acutely apprised of the enormous and important benefits of university autonomy. And, therefore, bereft of them also is the awareness that the building blocks for results and performance, the benchmark of accountability in tertiary institutions, are a measure of the form and level of autonomy granted such institutions. The situation has turned out so, as a result of the misconceptions over the term ‘autonomy’ its extension ‘administrative autonomy’ and, of course, the subsequent unhealthy actions built on them. Disturbed by the recurring damaging effects of this discovery, the researchers decided to beam the searchlight towards this direction. Guided by such questions inter alia as: what is administrative autonomy? What is the measure of accountability in education? The researchers, using the analytic approach in philosophy and focusing on the leading variables of the study, together with the subsequent discussions, made some findings. The findings, inter alia, revealed that most governments of our day fail to realize that demand for administrative autonomy cannot be a pretext for absolving themselves from their obligations to fund even their own tertiary education if they are eager to have a place of honour in the comity of developed nations, and that the failure or outright refusal to devolve development need projects/tasks to tertiary institutions cannot allow them to showcase their capabilities and results through task performance. The benchmark of accountability in such institutions is results and performance. Any determined effort to turn the tide around and, so being some redress in this regard must show cognizance to these facts.

Introduction

Education is globally reckoned with as a foremost instrument for driving national development. For any nation that has subscribed to this view in the quest to assume a place of pride in the comity of nations, its education system must move with the times.

In this post industrial age of civilization [otherwise the information age] a facilitator in this regard has come in the form of the extant information communication technology (ICT) with its driving force anchored on the world wide web (www) such that the entire world is now linked together and is rapidly moving towards a knowledge-based economy. And indeed, as if he envisaged this development, Francis Bacon (c. 1561 – 1625), a post medieval era English philosopher in his 1620 publication ‘Novum Organun’ hinted that ‘knowledge is power’.¹ This power resides in man – homo sede selentia – (the seat of knowledge) and its seat in man is the human mind.

It becomes thus pretty obvious that the human mind is a mine, a repository of a sort; and some special art is needed to dig into it for purposes of tapping, excavating, exploring, developing, activating and harnessing that wealth of the resources providence had therein laid, and the quality of the yield is, no doubt, a measure of the quality of the tool deployed for that purpose. In this regard, the education instrument is a critical tool. And surely in a globalized world, the quality of the resources any nation can set on the world table markets is a measure of the quality of its education infrastructure.  Therefore, education is per se basic infrastructure. The font, custodian and transmitter of it all is higher education institution (HEI), otherwise tertiary education. This accounts for why it has become imperative for governments to engage in HEI enterprises; and more importantly so in order not to be left behind in the race for quality life for the citizenry as well as quality web metric presence in the information society characterized, as it were, by highly challenging and exacting competitive circumstances. Institutions set up for this purpose must be seen to be flexible enough to run, adapting to the direction of the gale unencumbered and devoid of any entanglements. This may be reason why Rene Descartes (c.1596 – 1950) a modern era French philosopher, scientist and mathematician, in his permutations and reflections on the theory of knowledge noted that in the search for knowledge, the mind is guided in an infallible manner through reasoning to an infallible knowledge detached even from the physical word.² For him, the process of cognition requires freedom from all external interference and control. This is saying in effect that for this purpose of fitting into the information age with its concomitant cutting edge technology, the ICT, such institutions need certain degree of autonomy.³ They need this in order to operate to satisfy the yearnings of the chain of stakeholders. Harboring or entertaining a view contrary to the above provokes an invitation to provide answer to the question of why the post industrial age has witnessed such unprecedented surge in proliferation of tertiary institutions. But then, what is autonomy, one may ask? This brings us head-on to the need for definitions and clarifications of terms and the assumptions in this discourse. But before this, it is good to make some clarification here: hereinafter, the terms ‘higher education institution’, ‘the university’ and ‘tertiary education/institution’ are used interchangeably.

What is Autonomy?

It is important to have a proper conceptualization of the term ‘autonomy’ as well as its extension and implications in order to ground the unfolding discourse. The word ‘autonomy’ has an etymological root with a history dating back to the medieval period (c.500 – 1500).

Etymologically viewed, coming from two Greek words ‘auto’ meaning self and ‘nomos’ standing for law or rule; read conjointly, it literally means the power of self governance or operations guided by law set by self. In essence, it means immunity in operations from external control. In reference to an educational institution such as a university, it connotes and stands for the freedom of the institution to procedurally govern itself guided by laws it made without interference from any quarters in matter of decision making, management of its finances and general governance. The picture above fits in well with and was the norm in, medieval period university institutions such as those in Bologna, Paris and Oxford.⁴ Then, the institutions themselves called the shot in every material particular. Accordingly, they determined the curricula programmes on offer, fees payable, staff recruitment and welfare. Institutions were sought after by prospecting students according to felt needs. Then, universities were sustained, run and managed by the institutions themselves with little or no interference from governments of the day be it ecclesiastical or secular. Their sustenance came from fees, donations, endowments and the goodwill of generous individuals. Being on their own, the issue of debate over autonomy never arose. This was well long before the second world war (WW2).

With the war over and leveraging on the insights gathered sequel to the war, accentuated by the need to join in the race to cater for the citizen’s welfare, nations found themselves forced to turn to the universities. This in itself called for huge financial outlay and so considered no longer a matter to be left in the care of the institutions alone. People’s welfare called for setting up of industries and agencies; personnel were needed to man them. The need for human capacity development to drive national development was quite acute. Being now involved in this regard, government interference began to feature and this ignited conflict in the management of institutions.⁵ Autonomy which before now was assumed and enjoyed unencumbered has become a source of conflict and a matter for debate. Interestingly, the vagaries in the constructions and conceptualizations of the construct pitched interested parties into camps.

The emergent views, no doubt, also provided some rich insights. Some viewed university autonomy as standing for ‘the freedom of an institution to run its own affairs without direction or influence from any level of government’.⁶ Considering the definition above too brief and lacking in some details, this may be reason why Siddikov, on his own, sets it out as referring to the institution’s ability to determine its development strategy, organizational system, personnel recruitment, educational research, financial management and economic independence in the implementation of selected types of activities following laid down national laws.⁷ In all fairness and for our purpose, this UNESCO delineation of autonomy captures the mood of this paper. Let us pause here again to get a proper conceptualization of the extension of the concept autonomy in the form of ‘administrative economy.’

What is Administrative Autonomy?

The purport of this adjectival phrase is quite implied in the attempt to define autonomy. All put together, with autonomy as the institutional equivalent of academic freedom and administration having to do with the planning, organization, coordination and control [directing] of human and material resources towards the attainment of predetermined objectives, this concept is to be seen as standing for autonomy in the day to day running and management of the affairs of an institution following laid down rules of engagement.⁹ Thus the university institution is just like any other institution with goals and resources purposefully for goals attainment. We shall pause again at this moment and seek to provide answers to some further guiding questions.

• Where does the university as an educational institution stand in any nation’s socio-economic ladder?
• What is the rationale for the demand for autonomy for universities?
• What consequential implications lie following the demand for autonomy?

Where does the university as an educational institution stand in any nation’s socio-economic ladder?

It has never been in doubt that education, globally, is an instrument par excellence for the pursuit of national development and growth. At the apex of any nation’s education sector is the university. This is better grasped in the context that the university stands as the font and creator of knowledge, its collator, custodian and transmitter. It is in place with that overall goal of assisting in the honing of the citizenry into analytic, constructively critical, independent minded individuals. From their doings, such individuals, because they can question and interrogate inherited assumptions and beliefs, stand as proof against sheepish mass conformism as well as proof of people liberated from the yoke of the past.¹⁰ Thus disposed, the people by themselves strive to work and earn for themselves such quality of life and welfare comparable with communities and nations across the borders. They see themselves no longer as people with arms outstretched to receive pittance and handouts. Let us look at the next question.

What is the rationale for the demand for autonomy for universities?

Being at the apex of any nation’s education system, the university institution is not an institution that is set up overnight. It takes time and thought in planning. Wheresoever one is found, there have always been known some two major overriding causes: to be at the forefront in the nation’s human capital development and the drive for national growth and development.¹¹ It is in such institutions that the best brains for that purpose reside. As rightly noted by Menzie cited in Lawal, the university is the research hub for development and innovations, a training school for the needs of professions, a liaison between the academician and the practical man, a training ground for leaders and the likes.¹² To him, it is unthinkable to get to hear that the government of a free nation should seek to tell its university what and how it should conduct itself.

Though separated in time and pace, Loscher¹³ commenting in this regard earlier remarked that the demand for autonomy is as a strategy to enable universities to be more efficient and effective as it would allow them, on their own, to determine such issues as personnel recruitment, admission of students, curricula matters and methods of teaching. More importantly, it would offer them that latitude in operations to establish priorities for themselves and their growth. No less revealing in this regard is the view championed by Reale and Primee cited in Semyonov and Platonova¹⁴ urging that besides making the institutions more efficient and effective, the grant of administrative autonomy will pave the way for real time accountability, overcoming localism and promoting the merits of individuals and organizations. It is not overstressing the issue, looking back to the Cartesian period of modern philosophy when Rene Descartes (1596 – 1950) advocated for complete detachment in any involvement in the search for true knowledge because man ‘arrives at the truth by a process of continuous and uninterrupted action of the mind.¹⁵. This is because the cognitive process requires freedom from all external interference. In juxtaposition, in the context of tertiary education, the university requires autonomy in order to be able to achieve the goals for which the stakeholders set it up in the first instance.

What consequential implications lie following the demand for autonomy?

What a puzzle it may present remarking that certain truth is not given to everybody that easily to grasp about this crave for autonomy for tertiary institutions. Yet this fact is known and consented to readily by positive actions even in climes hitherto rated as too autocratic and, so, impervious to any flash of light of insight from without. Wheresoever autonomy is known to have been granted and introduced, such institutions are known and seen to think and act independently and with a high sense of responsibility; and by extension, they are seen readying themselves for accountability, a scenario described as ‘thinking from the top’.¹⁶ Since autonomy implies freedom from external control in the academic and administrative matters, any institution that attains such level, by implication, sees itself as having entered into a contractual relationship with the stakeholders no matter how remotely placed along the line. In an atmosphere like this, the institution can now de jure exercise the powers to overhaul the curricula to suit the demand of the times and more importantly in the context of the labour market. Such curricular programme offers are now unarguably both students and labour centered. In this way, they ensure that the students are not just employable but are seen to be employed. This, on the one hand, is another form of marketing education.

On the other hand, besides the curricular programme offers being both student and labour oriented and given also that autonomy confers the right and power to decide on matters of admission, thinking with that sense of responsibility, the management sets for itself a benchmark for admission and the fees chargeable. This it does mindful that since the institution’s survival is also dependent on enrolment, it must show tact and reason by ensuring that admission is neither forced down nor the fees regime so exerting and repugnant as to deter or frustrate seekers of quality knowledge. In this way also, it ensures it stays in business and relevant.

Throwing more light on the implications of university autonomy especially when now that the institution has begun to see itself as into a pact with stakeholders coupled with the fact of the verifiable employability of the products, this is a pointer to the labour and market oriented quality education recaved by the students. By extrapolation, this is a measure of the quality and competences of the corps of personnel helping to perform the magic even though from behind. These are indications of results showcasing performance as benchmark for measuring success and determining institutional rating.¹⁷

Yet, there is more in this regard. One observation worth noting down and underlining now is that, given the specializations in specific programmes and course offers in the institutions, such will awaken, catalyse and strengthen competition in cognate institutions and, so, form a basis for attracting students, extra-budgetary funds from investors (by way of endowments, projects, floating of scholarships and awards). This is all an outflow of success anchored on results and performance.¹⁸ Let us address yet another variable of our discourse: education accountability.

What is Accountability in Education?

It is a truism flowing from the law of finality in its thrust that everything that exists acts towards an end. In reference to an educational institution like the university, there is a purpose that informed it set up in the first instance. Consequent on that it is accountable to some persons be it natural or juristic. Being an ongoing concern that is not auto-operated, it is viewed as a trust institution which, at an appointed time and following some agreed modal indicators, is called upon to account obviously to the stakeholders. 

As an institution, what is it usually called upon to account for, one may ask? It is no other than how effectively and efficiently, as a steward, it has managed the materials and resources placed under its care and control. No wonder, and rightly too, has accountability been defined simply as measuring the effectiveness of what one does.¹⁹ Viewing it further in the context of educational institution, it is seen as “an inquiry into the consequential benefits the resources made available have yielded.²⁰ Nonetheless, invitation to account must have a focus. There must be a deliberate definition and delineation of the fronts. For instance, there must be clear-cut and specific goals, the strategy for their attainment and the measures which serve as indicators of delivery through performance.

Broadly viewed, university institutions ab initio have their goals well delineated namely: championing nation’s human capital development needs and her drive towards national development and growth.²¹ This may well explain why there is a tripod of causes for the engagement of higher education teaching personnel namely: research, teaching and community service. Together with all involved in any capacity operating within the four-walls of the institution, they constitute the academic community with rights and obligations. In extension they are all stakeholders in the trust institution – the university. But these are not the only stakeholders in the ongoing concern. In fact, the stakeholders are of two levels, internal and external.

While it may not appear worthwhile drawing a line among them, the fact stands that there are the councils/boards, administrators and faculty staff. There are the students and by extension the parents/guardians who are the sponsors. There are the teachers, the alumni, the funding bodies and members of the public, all with stake and interest in the progress and performance of the institution.²² Even though the society is the ultimate beneficiary, all these stakeholders are seeking to draw one benefit or the other from the institution. There is always among these classes the interplay of the principles of expectation, duty and obligation.²³. There is expectation on the part of the beneficiaries, at least on the two prime causes for setting up the university – evidence of human capital development with the graduates at the front charting the course of social and community development. There is duty on the part of the personnel who are the trustees, and there is obligation on the part of whoever that set up the trust. Let us pause again to have a look, even if cursorily, at the socio-panoramic landscape of high education institutions in Nigeria in general with special focus, however, on federal-owned universities.

The socio-panoramic view of the University Landscape in Nigeria

At the present, it is a notorious fact that there are about 219 university institutions in Nigeria. Of these, 111 are private-owned, 59 are states and 49 are federal government owned, all riding on that crest of commitment to human capital development and the drive towards national development and growth.²⁴ Among these many lies a common demand: a crave for autonomy as a strategy for greater effectiveness and efficiency. And as the stress for accountability has shifted from compliance with legal stipulations to production of results, performance has become the benchmark for the rating of such institutions. Accordingly, reviewing the results of survey of Nigeria’s federal universities in the web metrics ranking in the past five years (2017-2021), none has come within the first one thousand in the period. The University of Ibadan (UI) and the University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) managed to secure the 1172^nd and 1775^th position respectively.²⁵ And though there has occurred just recently an improvement in performance, of the number that made the top band of the first one thousand in 2023, indication is that there is neither regularity nor constancy in positions. For instance, while the University of Ibadan (UI) and the University of Lagos (UNILAG) made it to the first 401 – 500 band (what an improvement); the Bayero University, Kano and the Federal University Akure, from no where before, overtook University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN) to come within the 1001 – 1200 band. The UNN and Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) came within the 1201 – 1500 band.²⁶ The rating was based on a quadripod of carefully calibrated performance indicators covering teaching, research, knowledge transfer and receptivity at the international arena. While the above is the state of the arts in the federal universities’ web metrics ranking, the performance in laboratory rating is not cheering either. It is on record that as at 2011, not even one University laboratory in Nigeria made it within the first one thousand globally.²⁷ This is because gross infrastructure deficit was a common feature in all of them irrespective of status. Even out of the 61 that were assessed, some had their laboratory facilities serving also as lecture theatres. Notable too is that where there were workshops and simulation centres, they were dysfunctional because most of the equipment were either run down, vandalized or roted away. The conjoint effect of this rot in the system made it virtually impossible for the institutions to deliver on their mandates. These, besides other limitations and grievances, have precipitated the renewed fight for autonomy in the institutions, often culminating in strikes and closures. Yet, though worrisome, students have been graduating!

How many of such strikes and closures have occurred in the past five years, one may ask? It is not easy to set the figure down with accuracy. However, indication is that the union sheltering the higher education teaching personnel in universities – the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) – has since the current democratic dispensation in 1999 spent 1404 days on strike representing three years and ten months.²⁸ One direct effect of such strikes and closures is dislocations in the academic calendars, stagnation (if not outright derailing) of the students from their dreams of self actualization. For those who can afford it (and really how many can?) they seek for options in private and foreign universities. Report shows that tuition fees payment for Nigerians studying in the United Kingdom alone in 2020 amounted to $423m (equivalent of N152bn)²⁹ and in the three months between December 2021 and February 2022 tuition fees abroad gulped as much as $221m.³⁰ These sums as noted by Professor Gbajabiamila (the Vice Chancellor of Crescent University, Abeokuta) were more than the 5% budgetary allocation to education made by Nigeria, a free nation. For the past five years, the trend in Nigeria’s budgetary allocation to education has been as follows: 7.4% in 2018; 7.5% in 2019; 6.7% in 2020; 5.6% in 2021 and 7.9% in 2022.³¹ These clearly are at variance even with the Dakar EFA Global Report recommendation of between 15% and 20% of nation’s budget.³²

Discussion

In clear language, the tussle which the issue of administrative autonomy for universities has generated in recent times was never anticipated. This is because long before the Second World War, it was no issue of concern. In fact, autonomy for such level of institutions was de jure. But soon after, the tide began to change with governments’ intervention especially when they became the funds providers. Why did autonomy for tertiary institutions become such a heated issue of debate and acrimony one may ask?

The situation assumed this dimension because of misconceptions. While the agitation for it in institutions was as a strategy for greater efficiency and effectiveness, accountability, overcoming localism and promoting individual and organization’s merits³³, governments of nations, especially in developing nations, construed it all in terms of financial autonomy and legalism, neither results nor performance counted for anytinng.³⁴ This is as in the Nigerian paradigm, following the autonomy law the government of the day interpreted it to centre on finance but the ASUU was emphatic on internal democracy and procedural self-governance in the University as well as adequate funding to carter for staff and infrastructure development. This is just a pointer to the diversity in the misconceptions about autonomy. Determined to give vent to such misconceptions, using such proxy institutions like JAMB, the NUC and the Councils, governments have gone ahead, over the years, to practically erode and strip the universities of the critical elements of autonomy. As these proxy institutions have virtually taken over such matters as admission, accreditation of programmes and disbursement of funds relative to programmess, the universities are expected to work under their strict control. Even the appointment of the Vice Chancellors became the prerogative of Councils the membership of which especially the external members, comprises people who ordinarily (because they have no experience of the University four walls) should have nothing doing with shaping the destiny of such institutions.³⁵ Such people being political appointees, see such appointments as further opportunity to secure contracts, appointments and promotion for their dependents and cronies.³⁶ With this calibre of people in the governance of the universities, this has paved the way for lacklustre performance as it is capable of diminishing the accountability profile of institutions. How can this come about, one may ask?

Being political appointees (as already noted), they see their appointments as reward for political support (in potency or in act). Upon assumption of roles, certain irregularities are bound to start showing up. As for instance, when there is power in the way, there should be expected such tings as capture, exclusion and even clientelism; and subsequently commitment to the causes for setting up the institutions will be hamstrung. This is because with the gale of capture blowing through and within, seemingly uncontrollable, there will come a feeling of exclusion and lack of job satisfaction (if not outright frustration) because the incentives to cooperate are already eroded. Not long, it will become pretty obvious that accountability has been put up for sale and the inevitability of brain drain stares all on the face.³⁷

Whereas when and where administrative autonomy is the norm, the university begins to see itself as no longer working to attain compliance with regulations from outside but rather working to meet, through performance and results, the expectations in the contractual arrangements and pact with both the students and the labour market in particular and ultimately the society. Cognizant of the demands in the general workforce and labour industry, measures are taken to make curricula exactly students and workplace centred while at the same time, through its admission policy and fees regime, they ensure that they keep the gates open, neither forcing down admissions nor making it difficult for them to remain functioning and in business.³⁸

All things put together, because the curricula packages on offer are client and labour centric, verifiably meeting the workplace demand, this becomes a pointer to the quality of education and the skills being honed in the institution. In extrapolation, this serves as both a mirror and a measure of the quality and competence of the personnel behind the scene performing the magic. This is accountability through results using the performance benchmark. This, apart from robbing off well on the institution, is indicative of the specializations going on within and certainly a factor in institutional rating. Reckoning with all this will no doubt provoke, catalyze and strengthen competition in cognate institutions and so be a basis for attracting more clients, extra-budgetary funds from investors by way of contracts, projects, endowments and the likes in different forms. Illustration comes from some Russian universities, specifically those in the Southern and Siberia. These were the first to be granted autonomy. Like the other institutions, they receive their funding but not by way of estimate. It is rather in form of grants to them dependent on the tasks assigned to be solved by the institutions.³⁹ This marks a clear departure from what is happening in the context of Nigerian universities.

In Nigeria, autonomy is sought to be determined by government from outside. And given the incessant non performance of own part in agreements, tertiary institutions are continually drawn into strikes, not infrequently culminating in closures (sometimes protracted) and subsequently triggering off search for options in foreign universities, leading inevitably to enforced capital flights. Is it not worrisome, one may ask, that a country like Nigeria designated the world poverty capital should watch and see her citizens spend as much as $221m as tuition fees in foreign universities within a space of three months⁴⁰ A simple patriotic and intelligent reflection will readily impel the government of the day to simply augment this much with a marginal figure to bring it up to the 15 – 20% recommendation of EFA Global Report signed, sealed and delivered in Dakar. As a developing nation, the stakes are high and multi-pronged for Nigeria. Nothing short of autonomy for the universities covering such area as academic freedom substantive independence and procedural self-governance which serve as ground for accountability will do.⁴¹ Indeed, accountability in education is by choice. Lending its weight in this regard, the UNESCO has urged that “member states are under an obligation to protect higher education institutions from threats to their autonomy coming from any source”.⁴²

Implications arising from the Study

The following conclusions have become inevitable consequent on the varied findings and subsequent discussions:

The demand for administrative autonomy, besides serving the purpose of securing internal democracy and procedural self-governance, is a strategy for greater efficiency and effectiveness in tertiary institutions.

Autonomy granted and introduced lays that solid foundation for accountability because then the institutions see themselves in contractual relationships with clients because now preoccupied with the need to make their curricula programme packages client and labour centric, products and service marketable.

Devolving tasks and projects to institutions and the subsequent delivery on these serves as gateway to attracting more scholars, extra-budgetary funds, endowments and awards. What is more, autonomy leading to and exemplified in accountability through results and performance, by extrapolation, catalyses, sustains and strengthens competition in cognate institutions. What did it take ASUU to produce to UTAS (University Transparency and Accountability System) template for personnel emolument.

Demand for autonomy cannot serve as a pretext for governments to absolve themselves from providing needed funds for at least staff and infrastructure development.

Recommendations

In the light of the foregoing discussions and conclusions therefrom, the researchers recommend as follows:

Government of free nations such as Nigeria should demonstrate a favourable pre-possession of the mind and stop forthwith the prevarications over the demands for real time autonomy for tertiary education.

As autonomy lays the solid foundation for accountability by getting the institutions and stakeholders into contractual relationships with duties and obligations exemplified also in performance, governments should cultivate the practice of devolving tasks/assignments, contracts and projects to tertiary institutions.

With a grant of autonomy to institutions, they should begin to see such not just for critical adaptation to local labour demands but also for driving their reach further through breakthroughs, patents and, so, enhance the receptivity of their products and services as well as ranking at the international arena. By so doing they provoke, stimulate and strengthen competition in cognate institutions.

Governments of free nations should no longer view the demand for autonomy in finance management and procedural self-governance as flimsy and, therefore, a pretext for absolving themselves from their obligations to fund tertiary education in so far forth as staff welfare and infrastructure development matters are concerned. The governments of free nations should learn to prioritize tertiary education clothed with autonomy in preference to playing politics of grandstanding and heckling in order to give real development a chance if it hopes to command a place of honour in the comity of nations to say the least.

In conclusion, continuing along the line of wrong construction of university autonomy and its extension administrative autonomy can hardly get any nation o leverage on the cutting-edge of the ever-expanding diverse ramifications of the information age or place its universities on course to a place of reckon in the web metric ranking independently.

References

1. Stumpf, S. E. (1977). Philosophy: History and Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company

2. Stumpf, S. E.  Loc. Cit.

3. Mueed, M. I., Saeed, A. & Ata, G. (2013). Autonomy of higher education institutions in Pakistan: A case study of university education, Lahore in Journal of Public Policy and Administrative Research; 3(1) ret.https://www.Uste.org/journals/index.php/ppa/

4. Onwuka C.J.A & Enemuo, C. P. (2014). Introduction to History of Education., Enugu: Chuka Educational Publishers

5. Essien, O. E. & Obeten, B. M. (2020). ‘Administrative Autonomy and the Management of Universities in Cross River State, Nigeria’ in Journal of Research and Method in Education (IOSR_RME) 10(3) 1 – 5 Ret.https:WWW/osrjournal.org.iosr/papers/voal-10%20issue-1/series-3/A1001030105.pdf

6. Anderson, D. & Johnson R. (1998). University in twenty countries. Cambena: Dept of Employment, Education, Training and Youth Affairs.

7. Siddikov, I. B. (2021). Modern Models of Providing Autonomy of Higher Educational Institution – (Analysis of Foreign Countries Experience). In Current Research Journal of Pedagogies 2(5); 20 -31, ret. From https://masterjournals.com/index.pup/crip

8. UNESCO (1997). ILO-UNESCO Recommendations concerning the status of Higher Education Teaching Personnel. – p. 52. Ret. From www.right-to-education.org. 24 Sept. 2022.

9. Ogbonnaya, N. O. (2013) ‘Nature and scope of educational administration’ in Ogbonnaya, N. O., Oboegbulam, A. I. Onwurah, C. U. & Enyi, D. (2013). [eds]. Fundamentals in Educational Administration and Planning. Nsukka: Chuka Educational Publishers.

10. Mayer, F. (1962). New Perspectives in Education. Washington D. C. “Public Affairs Press.

11. UNESCO (1997) op.cit

12. Lawal, I. (2019). In search of autonomy for government-owned universities. Ret. From https://guardia.ng/features/in-search-of-autonomy-for-governemnt-universities. 24 August, 2022.

13. Loscher, A. (2004). Developments in University Autonomy in England. Berlin: Masters Dissertation Centre for British Studies, Humboldt University.

14. Semyonov, D. & Platonova, D. (2017). Accountability in Education – Meeting our Commitment; from https: unesdocunesco.org/arks/48224/pf0000259565

15. Stumpf, S. E. (1977). Op cit.

16. Aithal, P. S. & Suresh-Kumar, P. M. (2019). Autonomy in Higher Education-Towards an Accountability Management Model from https://link.thesescholedge.org/1085.

17. Aithal & Karesh-Kumar (2019). Op. cit.

18. Siddikov, I. B. (2021). Op. cit.

19. Office of the Chancellor (2002). University of Texas System Accountability and Performance Conceptual Framework: from https://www-utsyste.edupdf.

20. Enemuo, C. P. (2004). Academic freedom and Autonomy – a condition precedent for Educational Accountability in Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy; 11(2), 54 – 63.

21. UNESCO (1997). Op. cit.

22. Office of the Chancellor (2002). Op cit.

23. Enemuo, C. P. (2004). Op ciot.

24. Punch Editorial Board (2022) Proliferation of Public High Institutions harmful – from punch.com (August, 2022).

25.Thenationonlineng.net/world-university-ranking-nigerias-best-ui-si-1172/www.legit.ng/1259249-nigerian-universities-top-1000-world-university-ranking.html

26. Idoko, C. (2022). 12 Nigerian Universities surge in the 2023 Global Ratings – Okebukola. Ret.from Tribuneonline.com 13 October, 2022.

27. Lawal., I. (2019). Op. cit

28.  Busari, B. (2022). ‘ASUU: University teachers hae embarked on strike for 1404 days since 1999’ in Vanguard Newspaper, 14 June, 2022., from: vanguard.com/2022/06/ASUU/varsity/lecturers/have/embarked/on/strike/for/1404/days/since/1999/

29. Lwal. i. & Atueyi, U. (2020). ‘Nigerians pay N152bntuition in UK.; ret. From: The Guardian Newspaper Nigeria, 29 June guardian.ng.

30. Toluy-Kolawole, D. (2022). ‘Nigerians spend 221m on foreign education in 3 months-CBN Report’ ret from: punch.com; 23 May, 2022.

31. Lawal, I. (2021). ‘Despite promises, FG’s budgetary allocation to education remains low’ ret from: the Guardian Newspaper-guardian.ng/features/education/despite-promises-fgs-budgetary-allocations-to-education-remain-low/ 20 September, 2022.

32. UNESCO (2006). EFA Global Monitoring Report Education for All-INEE; from https:///inee.orgresourcesphd

33. Semyonov, D. & Platonova, D. (2017). Op cit 32.

34. Ruwa, M. (2004). ‘Institutional Autonomy and academic freedom in Nigerian Universities – A clarification of misconceptions. In Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy; 11(2), 80 – 92.

35. Enemuo, C. P. (204). Op. cit.

36. Okigbo, P.N.C. (1992). Crisis in the temple, Lagos: University of Lagos press. P. 9.

37. World Bank (1017). World Development Report – Enhancing Government for Development: Why policies fail. Ret from: https://elibrary-worldbank.org; 20 September, 2022.

38. Aithal & Kumar (2019). Op. cit.

39. Siddikov, I B. (2021). Op. cit

40. Tolu-Kolawole, D. (2022). Op cit.

41. Lawal, I. (2019). Op cit.

42. UNESCO (1997). Op. cit.

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract                                  

Today’s education system is fast-paced and ever-evolving, with a growing emphasis on children’s academic achievement. As such, it is important to consider the synergy between the educational experiences offered in childhood and tertiary institutions. This paper explored the potential benefits of collaboration between childhood education and tertiary education.

The paper focused on the potential benefits of collaboration between the two educational levels. Developing relationships between childhood and tertiary education could lead to increased transfer of knowledge and a more seamless transition from childhood to tertiary education. The collaboration could also result in richer learning opportunities for students, as they could benefit from new ideas, activities, and resources. Furthermore, increased communication between childhood and tertiary levels may lead to enhanced student confidence, as well as improved abilities in problem-solving, critical thinking, and other skills.

Keywords: Synergy, Childhood Education, Tertiary Institution

Introduction

The education system is constantly changing and adapting in order to best serve the needs of the students that will be in the future workforce. One relationship that is becoming increasingly important is the synergy between early childhood education and tertiary learning institutions. Childhood education plays an important role in shaping the foundation of a student’s educational experience. Early childhood learning lays the groundwork for a student to eventually transition to a postsecondary institution, so it is critical that the curriculum and practices used in elementary schools are as effective and efficient as possible. Through innovative teaching methods, such as the use of technology and progressive performance assessments, elementary schools can provide the best possible learning experience that will set the stage for further academic success.

At the tertiary level, it is important to create a learning experience that builds upon the foundational knowledge that is gained during early childhood education. By actively engaging with the student and providing appropriate challenges, universities and colleges can ensure that the student is receiving the best possible education.

It is an unarguable fact that early years experiences in the life of a child have a significant influence on the later life of any child. This implies that, as a country we must consider the quality of Early Childhood Education serious. Bush[1] stated that the years between birth and age five are the foundation upon which successful (or otherwise) lives are built. At the global level, this fact is recognized and every nation is working assiduously towards providing quality early years education and care for the very youngest children. Nigeriasigned up in order to provide quality and comprehensive early childhood education and care for all preschoolers. The Federal Government of Nigeria is now responsive to early childhood education by virtue of its inclusion in the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programs and even moved a step further to inaugurating early childhood education policy on 8 October 2007[2]. This constitutes a step in the right direction in the provision of good early childhood education.

Rationales behind the Introduction of Early Childhood Care Development and Education ECCDE

The rationale for the provision of ECCE is to ensure the overall development of the child who is endowed with nascent potentials who is to be nurtured properly right from the cradle for him/her to be nurtured meaningfully to maturity. Anuna & Obi[3] advance the following reasons for the introduction of ECCE in Nigeria:

Intellectual Development of the Child: The pre-primary school falls under the pre- operational stage of Piaget’s  theory of cognitive development which categorizes the intellectual development at this stage from 3-5 years since children are merely able to develop and form mental pictures of things and use symbols or representations of the world in which they live. Piaget establishes in his theory that the first five years of a child’s life are crucial as they form foundation for later adult life. Since this period is characterized by accelerate of intellectual development, this can be linked to the child’s social, emotional and physical development. The ECCDE before serves as engine room for intellectual progress and opportunities missed at this stage are secondly reclaimed. 

Socialization of the Child: Socialization can be seen in this context as the process of conforming to societal standards, customs, values and culture for smooth integration into the larger society. In early Childhood Education Centers, children with varying background attend the school together. In the school the pupils learn societal customs, values and culture. Children also learn to interact through playing, become law abiding and tolerated as well as learn to tolerate others. 

Emotional Development of the Child: Emotional development of the child is the most difficult aspect of the child’s life to be understood by adults. From the date of birth to the day the child enters school, the child is emotionally attached to the parents particularly the mother. It is obvious that parting from loved ones is usually painful and this has been one of the causes of truancy in schools. Pre-primary school therefore provides opportunity for children to leave their home without much emotional upset when they enter primary school. This is possible because the ECCDE centers are full of other children that the child enjoys emotional attachment and upset associated with leaving loved ones at home.

Moral Development of the Child: Norms of the society are made for the maintenance of peace and harmony in the society. Serious deviation from known norms of a given society leads to immorality. Morality which sustains a given society comes as a result of respecting the societal norms and mores. Moral education should therefore start from early childhood education level and not at the adult stage when many anti-social and immoral behavior patterns are formed. 

Physical Development of the Child: The physical development of the child is of two dimensions that is the development of gross motor skills through throwing, running and jumping activities and the development of fine motor skills through handling of small objects, toys, tying of shoes, drawing etc. Children of pre-primary school age like to be involved in one activity or the other. The average child’s home may not always meet the physical needs of the child to be engaged in activities at least as much as they would like. They like to jump, cross dwarf walls, form groups and walk across buildings, play with balls, play with swings and manipulate with old tyres and bicycles. The pre-primary school provides opportunities for the child to acquire these skills and help them to develop physically.

The Philosophy of Childhood Education

Philosophy of childhood education stresses the need to adopt a wholistic approach to the education of the child. Akinbote[4] asserted that, developmental and educational psychologists all over the world have made it clear that pre-schools years are the formative periods in the life of an individual. As a critical period, most concepts and basic principles of life are engrained in the children during these early years. Therefore, the educational objectives that guide ECCDE education should be well planned and developed from the child’s immediate environment. The philosophy of childhood education also seeks to establish the principles underlying this level of education, aims, purposes and methods which scientific knowledge has accepted within this level.

Moreover, most educational practices are prevaricated upon some philosophical principles or thoughts. Philosophy of education deals with speculative and contemplative issues in education that are fundamental to human existence.

Therefore, according to Nkechi[5] while clarifying NPE provision on early childhood education as varied programme initiatives required for children from birth to pre-school ages to make them thrive. These initiatives include early stimulation, nutrition and optimal interactive environment. In education, philosophy helps us to establish standards and formulate goals that can help us to set up signposts for the achievement of such goals. It will include a critical examination of methods and principles for solving the problems of childhood. For instance there are beliefs that young infants have a number of developmental needs like protection, nourishments, defence against diseases and physical injury, emotional, psychological and social needs just to mention a few. The philosophy of childhood education there foregives guidelines on how to achieve these objectives. It seeks to know those values, purposes and ideas towards which the child’s efforts can be directed.

Another crucial role of philosophy according to Maduwesi[6] in childhood education is that it encourages education to be geared towards the child. It focuses on vital aspects like educational objectives, methods, curriculum, environment and the role of the teacher in education of the child. This implies that childhood education should be activity-based and relate to the interests and needs of the child. Child-centred education is the education where learning activities are specifically directed towards the optimal development of the child. It refers to the development of “the whole child” hence called a wholistic approach to learning. It does not disregard any aspect of the child’s life. Education from this perspective is viewed as life itself rather than preparation for life. The practice of child-centredness in education is the function of philosophy and this will help the child to grow in learning as he overcomes challenges gradually. Therefore, the pre-primary educational objectives should be developed from the child’s immediate environment, based on the experience of the environmental conditions so that a child can relate these learning experiences to the daily experiences in the environment. Philosophy of education suggests that teaching should be done scientifically on developmental basis and measurable terms psychologically to motivate the child sufficiently to learn. The child’s individual difference should be considered and teaching adopted to that effect. Socially, children should be exposed to interact with an enriched environment, trained teachers, siblings, materials etc. to make them acquire the right type of social skills. All these philosophical ideas were the guiding principles that led to the establishment of pre-primary education as well as the curriculum used.

Tertiary Education Philosophy

Tertiary institutions in Nigeria encompass universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. According to Amaghionyeodiwe[7] The philosophy behind these institutions is to provide higher education and training to empower individuals with knowledge and skills for personal and national development. This includes fostering critical thinking, research, and innovation, and promoting values such as academic excellence, ethics, and social responsibility. Nigerian tertiary institutions also aim to address societal challenges, promote cultural diversity, and contribute to economic growth by producing a skilled workforce. However, it’s important to note that the specific goals and philosophies can vary between different institutions and may evolve over time.

Roles of the Childhood Education to Tertiary Education

The childhood educationplays a crucial role to tertiary institutions in a student’s academic and personal development journey. It involves a seamless transition and continuity of learning experiences from early childhood education to higher education. Let’s delve further into the details:

Foundation of Knowledge: Childhood education forms the fundamental basis for a student’s academic growth. It helps in developing essential skills like reading, writing, and critical thinking, which are further built upon in tertiary institutions. A strong foundation in early education sets the stage for success in higher education[8].

Smooth Transition: The collaboration between childhood education and tertiary institutions aims to ensure a smooth and successful transition from one educational level to another. Akinbote[9] asserted that by aligning curriculum frameworks and teaching methodologies, educators can bridge any learning gaps that may exist and equip students with the necessary skills for higher education.

Continuity of Learning: Childhood education focuses on holistic development, fostering social, emotional, and cognitive growth in students. This continuity is critical as students enter tertiary institutions, where they face more specialized and in-depth subject knowledge. As opined by Maduwesi[10]the skills and knowledge acquired during childhood education act as a springboard for further exploration and academic success.

Building a Growth Mindset: Childhood education inspires and nurtures a growth mindset, encouraging students to embrace challenges and develop resilience. This mindset is essential in tertiary institutions, where students often face more demanding coursework and high academic expectations. By cultivating this mindset in early education as asserted by Maduwesi[11], students are better equipped to tackle challenges and persevere through their higher education journey.

Long-Term Success: The synergy between childhood education and tertiary institutions is crucial for long-term success. It ensures that students are adequately prepared for the rigors of higher education and the demands of an evolving job market. Akinbote[12] believed that by establishing a strong educational foundation, students have a higher likelihood of academic achievement, personal growth, and successful career outcomes.

Summary

It can be learned that education system is constantly changing and adapting in order to best serve the needs of the students that will be in the future workforce. One relationship that is becoming increasingly important is the synergy between early childhood education and tertiary learning institutions.

While, childhood education stresses the need to adopt a wholistic approach to the education of the child. Moreover, the developmental and educational psychologists all over the world have made it clear that pre-schools years are the formative periods in the life of an individual. As a critical period, most concepts and basic principles of life are engrained in the children during these early years.

Eventually, Nigerian tertiary institutions also aim to address societal challenges, promote cultural diversity, and contribute to economic growth by producing a skilled workforce. However, it’s important to note that the specific goals and philosophies can vary between different institutions and may evolve over time.

The childhood education plays a crucial role to tertiary institutions in a student’s academic and personal development journey. It involves a seamless transition and continuity of learning experiences from early childhood education to higher education as follow: Foundation of Knowledge, Smooth Transition, Continuity of Learning, Building a Growth Mindset and Long-Term Success

Conclusion

The synergy between childhood education and tertiary institutions is vital for a student’s educational journey. It provides a seamless transition, builds on foundational knowledge, fosters continuity of learning, instills a growth mindset, and contributes to long-term success. Collaboration and alignment between these two educational levels are essential in equipping students with the skills and knowledge they need to thrive in higher education and beyond.

Recommendations

The smooth synergy between childhood and tertiary education can be effective by providing opportunities for students to engage with experts in the subject areas can not only create a dynamic learning environment, but also ensure that the students are engaged with current trends and developments in the field. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that educational institutions continue to explore innovative ways to create a learning experience that is both effective and efficient.

It can also be essential for the development of effective learners. By creating an educational environment that both provides rigor and encourages engagement, students will be able to gain the necessary skills needed to succeed in the future.

References

Bush, L. (2001).  White house summit on early childhood cognitive development, in

Teaching Our Youngest: A guide for preschool teachers and family providers (2002). Washington, DC. P. 61

Punch newspaper, 9 October 2007, p. 16

Anuna, M. C. & Obi, R. C. (2004). Introduction to pre-primary education (Concepts and principles). Enugu: Ernesco Publishers.

Akinbote, O., Oduolowu, E. and Lawal, B: Pre-primary and Primary Education in

Nigeria: (A Basic Text. Ibadan: StirlingHorden Publishers 2001). p35

Nkechi o.: Early childhood education in Nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a Way forward AJOTE Vol. 4, No. 4 (Fall 2014/Spring 2015)) p.3.

Maduewesi, E. J. Early Childhood Education. (Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria 1999). P. 28.

Amaghionyeodiwe, L.A  and Osinubi, T.S.(2007). “Do Higher Levels Of Schooling

Lead To Higher Returns To Education In Nigeria?” Applied Econometrics and International Development, Vol.7-1. pp.157.

---

[1]Bush, L. (2001).  White house summit on early childhood cognitive development, in Teaching Our

Youngest: A guide for preschool teachers and family providers (2002). Washington, DC. P. 61

[2]Punch newspaper, 9 October 2007, p. 16

[3]Anuna, M. C. & Obi, R. C. (2004). Introduction to pre-primary education (Concepts and principles).

Enugu: Ernesco Publishers.

[4]Akinbote, O., Oduolowu, E. and Lawal, B: Pre-primary and Primary Education in Nigeria: (A Basic Text.

Ibadan: StirlingHorden Publishers 2001). p35

[5]Nkechi o.: Early childhood education in Nigeria, policy implementation: critique and a Way forward AJOTE Vol.

4, No. 4 (Fall 2014/Spring 2015)) p.3.

[6]Maduewesi, E. J. Early Childhood Education. (Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria 1999). P. 28.

[7]Amaghionyeodiwe, L.A  and Osinubi, T.S.(2007). “Do Higher Levels Of Schooling Lead To Higher

Returns To Education In Nigeria?” Applied Econometrics and International Development, Vol.7-1. pp.157.

[8] Ibid pp. 157

[9] opcit

[10] opcit

[11] opcit

[12] Opcit

Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract

The demand for higher education is imperative and is rapidly increasing in Nigeria. The global perception agrees that for economic and social development to be derived effectively, there is need for advancement in, and application of knowledge. However, this is not the case in Nigeria.  Nigeria’s tertiary education system is beset with political interference and manipulations over the years. Nigeria tertiary education was established to produce the needed manpower necessary for transforming the available natural resources to the greater height of the economy. However, political issues has been influencing effective management of Nigerian tertiary education in the areas of teaching, appointments, admission, research and community services in many ways. This work examines the concepts of politics, the mode of political interplay in the areas of institutional location, funding, policy making, appointments, institutional ranking and admission policy. The paper also looked at the quality of Nigeria’s tertiary education from output rating and concluded that the management of Nigerian tertiary education has been greatly influenced by political interference which has greatly affected the quality of the products. It was however suggested that the issues of politics be substituted for merit operations to eliminate the risks of degrading the quality of tertiary institution’s input and output.

Keywords: Politics, Quality and Tertiary education

Introduction

Tertiary education is the most potent tool for effecting individual emancipation, growth and development as well as national transformation. Nonetheless, tertiary education system in Nigeria is facing major challenges in ensuring that standards are maintained and these are comparable locally, nationally and globally. These challenges are largely due to political interface and pokes by the political system in practice. Notwithstanding, for tertiary education system to remain attuned to cohere with the world of work, such that those who should be in school are not merely schooled but functionally educated to be self-reliant and productive and sought after by employers of labour far and above their peers, mitigating the challenges and filling the gaps through a robust turn around strategies has become an urgent imperative. The training provided in Nigerian tertiary institutions is often theoretical or obsolete and does not equip graduates with the necessary skills to positively impact the productivity or development of their country. There is therefore a strong need to improve the quality of education and ensure that applicable practical know-how is transferred, not minding polity and its intrigues.

Concept of Politics

Politics is a critical issue for the development of humanity. The questions of who gets what how and when to get it are political issues that define and influence the wellbeing of people in a society. These issues are influenced and determined by the political behaviour and actions of the ruling class. As politics influences human being so also are the social institutions. Political actions and conducts are pronounced in the educational system. Thus, the subject of politics of education becomes essential in determining the nexus between politics and education. The symbolic relationship existing between them showed that they mutually reinforce each other for the growth of the system and society. In line with this, Babalola (2005) posited that politics is the protection of domain acquisition of power, support building, influence gathering and self-serving.

Politics is a social process which deals with the continuous affairs of people. It is concerned with the issues which affect the general populace. It involves the allocation of values in a society. It involves the use of legitimate authority (Fabunmi, 2005). Politics as power – Politics is the process through which the production, distribution and use of scarce resources is determined in all areas of social existence. This basic element essentially underscore the descriptions of politics and reflect the fact that politics is about human beings in terms of how it can be used as a tool to better and improve the welfare and wellbeing of people in a place.

Understanding the Relationship Between Politics and Education

Politics bears direct, visible relationship with the process of education. The relationship is direct in the sense that the idea and orientation of education are determined by the political community in which the system is operating. In the light of this, there are variations in the ways curricula are designed and imparted in various countries of the world. In line with this thought, Ijaduola, Odunaike and Ajayi (2012) posited that no educational system can escape from the political community in which it operates. The system must reflect what the political community want it to be. The idea and orientation formulated by the political community will be imparted on the populace by the educational system to moderate their behaviours and attitudes to reflect the acceptable way of the people. The National Policy on Education (FGN, 2004), which is the political document that gives direction to how education should operate in the country, stipulates in section 1 sub-section 9 (f) that “efforts shall be made to relate education to overall community needs”. The document further indicated, in the same section, that “a nation’s policy on education is government’s way of realizing that part of the national goals which can be achieved using education as a tool”. This explains the importance of politics in education as well as the significance of education in politics. The contribution of one will influence the way the other will behave. The allocation of resources to the educational system by the political class will improve the productivity of the system, and lay foundation for the experience of qualitative education, which fundamentally will lead to national development.

The Concept of Quality                                 

Quality is a slippery concept, which implies different things to different people (Preffer and Coote, 1991). It is that which best satisfies and exceeds customers’ need and wants (Artzt, 1992). Quality can be said to lie in the eyes of the beholder. This is because the consumers, who make the judgment on quality, do these by reference to the best comparable performance. Quality refers to the standard of a phenomenon when it is compared to other things like it: how good or bad something is, that is, to be of good/poor/top quality or of a high standard. In this context, it is associated with the ‘monitoring and evaluation component of education’ to see whether the outcome is good and of the intended standard. However, Zelvys (2004) perceived that the concept of quality has been one of the most important concepts in contemporary educational terminology. Many educationists have attempted to define the quality of education and educational assurance.

The concept of quality has attracted many definitions from several scholars. Kalusi, (2001) argued that quality is a complex concept and there is hardly any consensus. According to DuBrin, (1997) quality is a desirable attribute of a product or service that distinguishes it for the person seeking the attribute. Viewed from this definition, quality could be said to have the attribute of worth and acceptance. Nevertheless, DuBrin maintained that good quality should possess the characteristics of conformance to expectation, conformance to requirement, excellence and value and loss of avoidance. Asiyai and Oghuvbu (2009) defined quality as a measure of how good or bad the products of higher education institutions in Nigeria are in terms of their academic performance and meeting established standards. According to Ekong (2006), quality builds knowledge, live skills, perspectives, attitudes and values. When quality education is delivered high enough to meet set standards, the products of education should be able to perform well in the world of work in real life situation. When quality is low, performance cannot meet the set standard. Hence one can say that the quality of education has declined below set standards.

According to Uchendu, Akuegwu & Nwi-ne (2006) quality is seen as the degree of excellence while quality assurance is seen as a system for assuring that quality of output meets the required standard all the times. It therefore implies that a product has to conform to a specification or requirement. Quality assurance is a retroactive action used to determine the quality of a product or a system after processing and during which wastages would have occurred and what is left is to reject or battle with rectification in a like manner.

Tertiary Education

Tertiary education is the education given after secondary education in colleges of education, polytechnics, universities and other institutions offering correspondence courses (FRN, 2004). According to the document, the goals of tertiary education encompass the development of relevant high level manpower, development of intellectual capability of individuals and acquisition of physical and intellectual skills. Others are to promote and encourage scholarship as well as community service. Tertiary educational institutions pursue these goals through teaching, research, generation and dissemination of knowledge which they achieve through a variety of programmes such as certificate, diploma, undergraduate and postgraduate courses. Tertiary education contributes to the production of high level manpower in diverse professional callings as dictated by national development requirements. The goals of tertiary education also focus on inculcation of community spirit in the students through projects and action research.

The Aims of Tertiary Education In Nigeria As Outlined By The Federal Ministry of Education (2004) Section 8 (59):

1. Contribution to national development through high level manpower training.
2. Development and inculcation of proper values for the survival of the individual and the society.
3. Development of the intellectual capabilities of the individual to understand and appreciate their local and external environment.
4. Acquisition of both physical and intellectual skills which will enable the individual to be     self-reliant and useful member of the society.
5. Promotion and encouragement of scholarship and community services.
6. For national unity and the promotion of national and international understanding and interaction.

Challenges of Quality in Nigerian Tertiary Education

In the early years in Nigeria, it was glaringly obvious that the university was regarded as the single most important industry for the production of high-level manpower and the capstone of the entire educational system. University training according to Ume (1979) aims at raising the intellectual tone of society, cultivating the public mind, purifying the national taste, supplying the principles of popular aspirations and giving enlargement and sobriety to ideas of the age. It is not surprising that stakeholders in University education tend to guard jealously the integrity of the university and the quality of graduates produced. As affirmed by Daisi (1997), many graduates from the nation’s universities have distinguished themselves in their areas of specialization so much so that some of them are now professors in the best universities across the globe. This attestation is quite resounding in that quality entrants were developed into quality graduates. Due to the declining quality in recent years, however, the accolade attached to Nigerian Universities have faded away. This can be seen by the flood of criticisms that becloud the admission procedures and quality of graduates produced. In his keynote address delivered at the first education summit of Oyo State Universities especially in the last four years and thumbed down the quality of those that would graduate in the next held in Ibadan, Okebukola (2006) decried the quality of graduates produced in Nigerian three years. Similarly, Adebayo (2007) commented that the non-inclusion of any of the nation’s universities in the world best 500 universities is unsatisfactory.

In another development, the NUC (2004) assessment study on labour market expectations of graduates from Nigerian Universities revealed that there were scores of unemployed graduates roaming the streets and more embarrassingly, those who were lucky to secure employment had to undergo remedial training in order to bridge the huge knowledge and skills gaps left over from university training. This tends to negate the tenet of University education which is essentially an industry established to produce a quality workforce for national development.

Nigerian universities cannot meet their expectations especially in terms of the quality of teaching and research. Lack of adequate funding has clearly impaired the performance and standard of Nigerian universities as the vicious circle of inadequate funds, helplessness, frustration and recriminations is continually fed in a mutually reinforcing manner (Kayode, 2002). Babalola (2001) reported that Nigerian universities are currently in crisis. He further stressed that there is less money to spend on teaching, research and community services. Libraries are ill equipped, laboratories lack essential apparatus, classrooms are dilapidated and office accommodations are a mirage. Many Nigerian universities even lack lecturers in the right quantity and of proper quality.

Politics In The Management of Nigerian Tertiary Education

The rate of which politics constitutes risk to the management of Nigerian higher education are reflected in the following policies.

Institutional Location: The critical for the location of the higher institution are not strictly followed. According to Oke (2016), the factors for the location of institution are rural-urban resource availability, needs and aspirations, educational policies, students demand, industrial-institutional relations and manpower requirements. However, the educational planners consider these factors before institutions could be approved for establishment. However, with the politics in the management of tertiary education, the policies grinding the location are not effectively sited in the strategic places, the issue of nearest neighbors analysis is not well determined. In Nigeria, it is observed that most of the institutions are concentrated in the urban areas neglecting the rural areas in Nigeria, the concentration of the institutions in the urban areas caused rural-urban drift risks to the Nigeria youths and other members of the rural communities. For instance the politicians that is in the helm of government affairs will influence the location of institutions in their own state or in their communities mindless, whether their state or communities are in the urban areas. They only use institution location to compensate the ministers, president, senators, ambassadors, governors etc whether the goals in the higher education will be achieved or not in their institutional location areas. It is less of their concerned (Borkono (2017).

Appointment: Appointment of academic and non-academic staff of higher education are politicized, the appointments are therefore influence by the government in power. The action on the recruitment of the staff are influenced by the government to gain the political popularities from the public. The appointment of vice Chancellor’s, Provost’s, Rector’s and all the management of the higher institutions are done by the government in power. However, the politics have great impacts on the appointment of the staff for the smooth ruining of the institutions. Furthermore, the risk involve in the appointment is that most appointments are influenced by political participation in the ruling parties. The procedures for the appointment are not strictly followed.

However, the problem of politics in appointment according to Ahmed (2013) is to reward loyalists but this at the end undermines the objective of the educational system. However, the risks of this type of appointment lead to the inability of the government to regularly and promptly pay the workers monthly salaries, regular retrenchment and the poor  consideration for the available facilities which have negative effect on the worker’s productivity. The realities of the consideration of the institutional needs in term of qualified and skillful worker was supported by Oyedeji (2013) that the consideration of both the needs of the institutions in term of skillful and expertise workers have positive impacts on the institutional productivity and effectiveness. It is important to note that politics in the appointment of workers for the higher education is used positively for reducing high level of unemployment among the graduates.

In Nigeria context therefore, whenever there is the need for recruitment exercise into higher institution there are some percentages of the posts that are illegally reserved for the politicians in the presidency, ministers, honorable members of government etc. However, the reservation of the position to the politicians creates excessive power control of the management by politician. It should be noted that the candidate presented may not be quality candidates. As Ogundele, Eseyin and Abimiku (2017) posits that the qualified of the product of educational institution are being determined by the quality of the teachers, that no educational standard can rise above the quality of its teachers and quality teachers enhance quality education in Nigeria.

University Ranking Processes: There are many factors that influence university ranking in Nigeria. The factors according to Ogundele and Jake (2016) are research, publications, teaching, community services and quality control mechanisms. However, for the universities to be ranked high, there should be high commitment of the institutional workers, adequate funding and efficiency in the management’s control of the institution. The ranking of Nigerian universities is noted through accreditations, whereby the accreditation panels will access the research publication, level of conference attendance and sponsorship. The  availability of quality physical facilities like information and communication technology building, offices and classroom accommodation, library facilities workshops and science laboratory equipment.

Some Strategies for Enhancing Quality Tertiary Education in Nigeria.

Modification of curriculum in tertiary institutions

The curriculum is expected to respond positively to modern trends of event through emphasis on innovative knowledge and skills which are variously referred to as ‘daily living skills, survival skills and life coping skills’ (Njoku 2003) The world is not static in nature but dynamic and change is a constant phenomenon in the world, therefore, the education industry which is the most dependable for interpretation and adaptation of the constant changes in the world turn out a lot of graduates every year who are expected to identify and solve problems, establish good working relationships with others, organize and manage themselves responsibly, collect and evaluate information, communication in different ways, use science and technology effectively and the capacity to develop a consistent world-view (Udosen, 2003:75). Courses are modified and new courses are introduced to enable student acquire life-long coping skills through science processes which include observation, experiment, generalization and prediction. The modification of the curriculum enhances the holistic development of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains for quality productivity and meaningful integration into the society for sustainable living. The introduction of courses like general studies (GST), entrepreneur education, vocational education among others are indices of curriculum modifications in tertiary institutions.

Accreditation of Tertiary Institution and their Programmes

The phenomenal growth of tertiary institutions in Nigeria is unparalleled anywhere in the African continent. The growth has been in terms of increase in students’ population and then number of tertiary institutions themselves. These citadels of learning which are means of social mobility, self-development and skill acquisition, are expected to play major roles in the fulfillment of Nigeria philosophy of education through training and research to ensure quality of their institution. It is therefore imperative for faculty members, facilities, the examination and grading system to be subjected to scrutiny by a team of professors in that discipline, selected from different tertiary institutions by the different commission or board like NUC, NCCE, NBTE, who are charged with responsibility of monitoring the activities of the various tertiary institutions. The accreditation exercise is usually carried out every two-five years.

Strategic Planning of Programmes

Another strategy for quality assurance in Nigeria tertiary institution according to Etuk (2006) is strategic planning of programmes stated that strategic planning requires that heads of departments, deans of school/faculties state the objectives of their academic programmes, its contribution to economic development with regard to their graduates in terms of their capabilities when they are out of school. They should also use Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis to access their programmes. Strategic planning in tertiary institutions will attract funds from government and other agencies if the programmes are relevant and given accreditation. Funds have been a very crucial and fundamental concern to the government and managers of tertiary institutions. Strategic planning of programmes can induce generation of revenue from both internal and external sources, since government alone cannot fund their tertiary institutions sufficiently.

Availability of Human Resources

A very fundamental issue in assessing quality in the educational sector is the quality of human resources available. It is worthy of note that the unprecedented influx of academic personnel into tertiary institutions poses both strength and threat to these ivory towers. It is strength when the human resources available have potentials. On the contrast, it is a threat when these potentials and talents combine with other resources to produce mediocrers. According to Madumere-Obike (2004) the influx of unqualified personnel into the academia determines the quality of graduates produced. A survey of teachers in Nigeria tertiary institution shows this level of dissatisfaction among the teachers Tanji (2001).

Adoption of Information & Communication Technology

Another laudable area of need in ensuring quality in tertiary institution is the adoption of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Information is an indispensable part of the contemporary world, not only has it brought about rapid technological, economic transformation, and globalization, the tertiary school system depends on it to cope with the worldwide information needs within the school system.

ICT adoption promotes teaching and learning for instance, in recent times the multimedia internet-based technologies have provided opportunities for teaching and learning at a distance. ICT also facilitates the management information system (MIS) into the administrative processes, on-line libraries provide access to current books, journals and other information resources through global networking.

 A study by Ige (2002) on computerization of MIS and administrative effectiveness in Nigeria Universities holds that MIS has helped to facilitate decision-making for effective administration, classroom and individual management, resource management and generation of data. It also helps to generate additional information concerning problems, opportunities and challenges inclusive as well as its contribution to the development of on-line screening and registration of students.

ICT can be used to ease the load of supervision, evaluation and appraisal of students and teachers. The management task, removal of wastages and quality cannot be achieved without application of ICT in all areas of school application.

Effective Supervision

Effective supervision of activities within the tertiary institutions should be enforced in order to attain quality assurance in tertiary institutions. Supervision involves the use of expert knowledge and experience to oversee, evaluate and coordinate the process of improving teaching and learning activities in schools. Close monitoring and supervision of teachers pulsates them to implement educational polices, and reforms. Based on these supervisions, recommendations are made such as provision of adequate facilities and human resources. Supervision creates awareness of sound education philosophies. Igwe in Egbo (2007) describe supervision as a process that policy, principles, rules, regulations and methods prescribed for the purpose of implementing and achieving the objective of education are carried out. Teachers are influenced, stimulated, coordinated, commanded to carry out their assigned task in order to maintain standard. For quality education to be realized at the tertiary level of education, supervision is highly crucial as it boosts the morale of teachers.

Recommendations

The following recommendations are made in order to allow the impact of politics to be more than the risks involved in the management of Nigerian tertiary education system;

1. The government should avoid the issue of god-fatherrism and favortism in the appointment processes. Appointment should be based on quality, effectiveness and merit, for this will bring about effective realities in the higher educational system.
2. Politics should be played with caution on the institutional location, appointments, funding and accreditations in order to remove the risk of inequity, inaccessibility, fairness, justice and quality in the products of the Nigerian tertiary education.
3. Political interference in educational policies planning, implementation and evaluation should be stopped. Non-professionals should not be allowed to take part in the curriculum development process.
4. Government should come up with a policy that will bring about equal accessibility of the citizens in order to meet up with the social-demand approach to Nigerian higher education.
5. Systematic approach should be used when seeking higher education in a particular area in order to consider environmental factors and the need and aspiration of the people within the geographical areas.
6. Finally, community participation should be allowed in the institutional decision making process in order to encourage community-school relationship in the management of the institution especially in the areas of funding of educational facilities and all areas that will aid complementary efforts to the government.

Conclusion

Nigerian tertiary education is not totally free from the influence of politics. In the last three decades, higher education in Nigeria has witnessed significant growth in terms of expansion of access through increase in enrolment and the establishment of additional higher educational institutions. However, it is saddening to note that many of the indices that can guarantee quality higher education are not taken into consideration in the country’s quest to meet the quantitative target. The supply of educational services in Nigeria is market blind. Admission policies of university education are not related to labour demand requirements, nor to individual student interest, but mainly to secondary school grades. The result of this is pressure on the available limited resources thereby resulting in downward pressure on staff salaries together with deteriorating working conditions. The effects include a high degree of “brain-drain” among the academic staff, incessant strikes, student riots, etc. All of these have contributed to a precipitous fall in the quality of tertiary education.

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Download/View the cover of the paper, NJEP Vol. 34, No. 1

Abstract                             

The notion and theoretical complexity of critical thinking are used for epistemological critique of the model of children’s dependency on overstated learning outcomes. The rationale underlying this paper is that there exists a lacuna in analyses of philosophical discussions relating to children; doubts and uncertainties about fundamental traits and characteristics that are solely dependent on developmental issues have led to ambiguity in claims about children’s competence, intelligence, rationality, and maturity. The argument that children don’t have equivalent life experiences as adults and are thus, in some ways, less able to deal with the complexities of life than adults is one that makes sense. This being found to be the case, then children’s vulnerability to policies that put them in situations where they are totally dependent on adults will prevent them from having the freedom, self-esteem, and critical thinking they need. In order to advocate for children’s increased freedom, self-determination, and critical thinking, the article examines the children’s earlier years of worldly experience as well as how factors of dependency and autonomy can be balanced. It focuses on children’s capacities and competence to be autonomous to obtain the flexibility to participate in critical thinking centred education. Changes in the way society functions and how children learn have been created by advances in technology. To match these innovations there must be constant search in the field of education for improved ways of ensuring that children of basic education level, are equipped with learning tools which will be functional in preparing them for qualitative tertiary education.

Keywords: Dependence: Autonomy: Critical Thinking

Introduction

In our own cultures, it is not uncommon for something akin to the Platonic presupposition to be accepted. It is assumed that the only place where students may learn to be critical is at universities. The idea that even at the university level students should be encouraged to think critically about the conventional values and the recognised institutions of their communities is not generally accepted; in fact, it is sometimes suggested that such critical reflections should only be allowed for “mature minds.” Additionally, there is an increasing propensity to postpone critical discussion and the confrontation of real problems to post-graduate levels as the mass of instructible rules grows in volume.

Many people would concur that independent, critical thought is suitable in academic contexts but argue that it is inappropriate at lesser levels. One example is that it’s commonly said that the majority of people, especially those who are younger, cannot be educated and cannot take part in the effort to confront and solve problems. There is no way to decide a priori whether this hypothesis is true. However, it is inappropriate to debate. Thus, the following subheadings of the chapter analyses the issue of critical thinking in relation to childhood and rationality; child/adult years of experience; autonomy and dependence.

Critical Thinking: Childhood and Rationality

Evidences from experiments in psychology reveal that young babies have a natural ability to reason regarding certain laws of nature. The studies indicate that newborn infants appear to have a fundamental understanding of the physical world’s fundamental principles., such as solidarity, causality, trajectory, and number … Infants appear to know that solid objects should not pass through each other, should not hang in mid-air without a visible support .. , (Brenner et all, 1997) Researches also claim that infants are able to reason with their representations and can generate new information about an event, even when that event has not been perceived directly (Spelke, et al, 1992). Likewise, it has been established that the abilities to represent and reason about the external reality emerge early in tandem with the capacities to sense and act. (Hill, Thomas, 1991).

However, according to Kant’s earlier writings as referred by Thomas Hill: Kant once wrote that he had been inclined to think that dignity and respect should vary with intellectual achievement and that therefore professors should be accorded the highest dignity, presumably vastly superior to that of common labourers. Rousseau saved him from this error later, he said, and taught him that the important ground of dignity is in every human being (Hill, Thomas, 1991).

Thus, the concept of a ‘common humanity’ in all human beings later replaced Kant’s aristocratic views on equality of respect. Obviously, Kant’s amended ethical position is based on a fact that the meaning of respect must be extricated from selective standards of appreciation such as the respect one may feel for a professional artist, or a person in some position of authority, or a person of high intellectual achievement. Kant’s amended thesis holds that human dignity as rational beings is unconditional and uncomparable, which means that human beings are to be respected because of their being human beings and not by what kind of human beings they are (Kant cited in Clegg, 2001).  Therefore, it would be wrong, to disrespect children simply because it is wrong to disrespect any human being and not because a human being is young and small.

Different conceptions of rationality are based on varying criteria. Lipman, for instance, writes about a concept of rationality which places reasoning on meaningfulness at the centre of justification by asking questions such as ‘If children were not rational how else could they make sense of newly acquired experience?’ ‘How else could they learn?’ How else could adults find them intelligible?’ (Lipman, 1988) On the other hand, Kant rejects investigations that do not separate the empirical reasons that the understanding raises to general categories simply by the comparison of experience from the motives that, as such, are provided totally a priori by reason alone and are truly moral (Kant, in Hill, Thomas 1993).

According to Kant, our rationality is innate to who we are as people because all moral notions have their roots entirely a priori in reason, both the most basic human reason and the most complex. (Kant, 1993) By inference, if children are human beings they are rational, and if rational they are capable of independent thinking and having moral concepts. However, to regard practical uses of reason as more fundamental than theoretical ones Kant requires a higher-order approach than this, because instrumental rationality is dysfunctional as regards “the pure thought of duty and of the moral law generally.” (Kant, in Hill, Thomas 1993),

There is a power to think and act in a reasonable way using cognitive reason, but with practical reason one can use disciplined reason in choosing how to think and act in a way which not only accords with duty but is done from duty and acquires moral worth. For that, “such duty can be expressed only in Categorical Imperatives”. (Kant cited in Clegg, 2001) Thus, application of a Categorical Imperative is necessary in order to be regarded as an autonomous moral agent. The capacity which extends beyond the cognitive into the practical creates a distinguishing mark to differentiate between animals and human beings, according to Kant, but it is unclear whether that mark can differentiate between children and adults.

According to Kant: ” in as much as morality serves as a law for us only insofar as we are rational beings, it must also be valid for all rational beings”, (Kant, in Hill, Thomas 1993) morality is therefore grounded in ascription of rationality. Kant is presumably referring to practical rationality because a limited mode of rationality would be a capacity to only reason instrumentally. From the view of Kant, it is the being rather than the rationality of ‘finite rational beings’ that is limited. This is entailed in his strong belief that rationality is not limited to humans on earth and that other worlds are inhabited. Kant laments that: there can only be single and the same reason, which differs only in how it is applied. Since reason has been given to us as a practical faculty, its ultimate purpose must be to foster a will that is good in and of itself rather than just as a means to an end. (Kant cited in Clegg, 2001)

It can be argued from the above remark that, accepting the existence of a mere degree of rationality would prompt considerations of a mere degree of ‘goodness-in-itself’ and this would be unintelligible. Fraught with notions of incompleteness and imperfections, a degree of rationality could be said to be a problematic concept. This holds that the effect is only measurable in analogy with a concept of ‘happiness’. To think that one adult should have a power to reason different from another adult seems absurd as it is equally to think that the same discrimination should exist between children and adults.

Although the learners cannot be taught Judgement by their teachers but they may help them to improve their power of judgement by widening and encouraging greater experiences. Children must belong not only to a sensible world but also an intelligible world if they are to be regarded as both cognitively and practically rational. They are obligated to act on “practical principles of morality which are present a priori in our reason”, and which serve to protect morals from “all kinds of corruption.” ((Kant, in Hill, Thomas 1993) Children would be left at the mercy of maxims which may include common rules of moral salience if the Categorical Imperative is not linked with autonomy to provide the ability to choose generalisable maxims. Kant never intimated that universalisation of maxims which may be viewed as a monolithic task for children would be an easy task for anyone because it may also be a monolithic task for adults in general. Children’s lesser years of experience represent a factor for a child/adult split in terms of freedom for independent and autonomous thinking. Hence, the argument for children’s discrimination on the basis life experience.

Critical Thinking: Experience as a factor for the child/adult split

One may ask whether the extra years of adult experience over and above children’s lesser years of experience represent a factor for discriminating children from adults? Whether greater amounts of experience in terms of amount and quality can be beneficial and in what ways? It is a commonly held view that through extra years of experience one becomes wiser as he grows older. For instance, According to Hursthouse, wisdom is a component of our conception of adulthood and the kind of wisdom it delivers is not the kind that can be learned but rather the kind that results from experience in life (Hursthouse, 1987). However, life experience and its subsequent wisdom could not be prerogative of adults alone. Many children, particularly those in the third world countries (where such wisdom is frequently essential for survival) have wisdom about life. Children quickly assimilate what is right or wrong by enlightened understanding, and there is much to be said of children’s ordinary common sense and children’s ability to cope rationally with life’s situations (within the boundaries of their territories), although knowledge and its effective use is easily seen to apply to older people.

Lipman refuted the argument which claims lack of experience as a factor adversely affecting children’s capacity to cope rationally with life’s situations. Experience shared by children and adults presents compatible perspectives. According to him, “The very intensity of childhood experience could well compensate for the handicap of not having confronted the world over an extended period.” (Lipman, 1988) Differences in intensity of experiences does not indicate instances of different worlds and emotions, when quality of experience is shared by young and old, and ordinary reactive attitudes in children elicited from reactions to situations would be similar to those elicited in adults. It can be acknowledged that some adults will react with less sophistication than some children, even though, some children’s reactions may be less sophisticated than those of adults.

The classical distinction between “rationalism and empiricism” is represented by the opposition between “deductivism and inductivism”, in considering the quantification of experience to some respects (Popper, 1957). For instance, it is an impossible task and unnecessary to examine all instances in order to obtain knowledge of general propositions when a process of deduction allows one to conceive of universals from experiences of certain particulars.

The common sense assumption is that we do not need to reach the maturity of adulthood experience in order to think and judge rationally of most everyday situations. For instance, to meet life’s challenges strongly depends on power of deduction; inference by reasoning and induction (by reasoning from the particular to the general). Likewise, as maturity is approached, affectation from experience gives one’s ability to responded with growth through expansion of territory. However, there are limitations during the expansion process and children must live and understand how it is possible to live and survive rather than simply understand how life ought to be lived in order to survive.

Children must live within a boundary of needs and capabilities and they must reason with the varied limitations, within these boundaries, during maturation processes (Popper 1957). Estimating time and motion factors correctly, for instance, when a vehicle approaches in preparing to cross busy roads is an example of the benefits of extra years of experience in developing skills in computation of distance and speed correlation. The high rate in traffic accident figures in respect of children no doubt illustrates the necessity for supervision of young children regardless of their competences in areas such as rationality. Although children may prove competent in themselves but they must find it difficult to adapt that competence to the adult-structured world in which most things are oversize for them. Element of paternalism would be difficult to eradicate from law terminologies dealing with children’s rights for these reasons. According to Berne, the purpose of the ‘adult’ in the personality of a person is to process data and compute probabilities which are essential for dealing effectively with the outside world. (Berne, 1964) Therefore this computational skill which develops with years of experience could be said to have well represent an important factor in discrimination of a child from adult.

Critical thinking: autonomy and dependence

Liberationists and Paternalists, with opposing principles on child-rearing, are divided into two distinct and polarity groups. Respect for freedom, non-interference and self-determination is the major claim of the liberationists, leading to states of autonomy and independent thinking among children. Paternalists on the other hand will argue that children are not as competent, rational, or as matured as adults in general and, therefore, should not be treated as autonomous and independent thinkers, instead, they respect protective measures of care and obligations. The philosophy that’ admits children have a right to care and protection but that they do not have a right to self-determination. As Archard, thinks that self-determination is too important to be left to children” (Archard, 1993) He therefore assumes a right to intervene in matters which require the making of sensible informed decisions relating to children’s lives, and children are restricted in exercising autonomy until considered competent to make such decisions on their own behalf.

The position however denies children the opportunity to defend their position as competent members of society. The caretaker thesis assumes a position of authority and justifies proceedings as being in children’s best interests. The choices of the adult for children are therefore justified as better choices by a criterion of competence. The principles of autonomy and paternalism feature strongly in the duties of parenthood and how they evaluate the child’s competence. However, contingencies deny consistency in competences and whether in children or adults, neither complete competence nor complete incompetence features in their capacity to think autonomously and take informed decisions. Adults may know better than children because of longer years of experience, but sometimes a child shows greater wisdom than that shown by an adult (Willingham, 2007).

Generally, children are eager to be considered competent and enthusiastically seek for independence. Margaret Donaldson claims that “there is fundamental human urge to be effective, competent and independent, to understand the world and to act with skill”, but, she says, “in some ways we do not encourage competence.” (Donaldson, 1978) Children are forced into dependence as contended by John Holt. (Holt, 1974) Dependence is not only an acceptable state of affairs within the family circle but is a necessary one. Choices may be better or worse as regards meeting needs, wants and desires in respect of those affected by the chooser’s choice, not just in respect of the chooser. These choices are regulated by policies which may intermingle with tension between love and respect and between dependence and autonomy. (O’Neill, 1989)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau regarded dependence as a form of weakness and claimed that “man is made sociable by his weakness … ” (Rousseau, 1916) on the other hand John Dewey had the opposite view and saw dependence as a form of social coherence, which he argue from a social standpoint, claiming that dependence denotes a power rather than weakness; it involves independence. However, from the traditionalist perspectives, there is a constant risk that a person’s capacity for social interaction will decline as their level of independence rises. Meaning to say, by making him more independent, it can likewise render him more self-sufficient, which could cause him to become distant and indifferent because it would make him so perceptive in how he interacts with others and give him the impression that he can stand and act alone. (Dewey, 1916) Dewey believes that, dependence on other people need not engender helplessness nor lack of self-esteem. This can be recognised as a truism when the Principle of Respect for Persons which includes care and protection in respect of all human beings, young and old is considered.

Critical thinking is a skill that almost everyone possesses and employs regularly, and as the conditional probabilities research (Willingham, 2007) showed, this ability has existed since a very young age. The challenge is not in exercising critical thought; rather, it is in understanding when to do so and having the knowledge necessary to do it effectively. The ability to think critically is not a set of abilities that can be used at any moment or in any situation. Even 3-year-olds have this form of cognition, and even professional scientists often struggle with it. (Willingham, 2007).

According to Kant (cited in Clegg, 2001), the only way individuals can develop as mature persons is to use the power of autonomy granted to them as rational beings. A self-incurred immaturity results when one prefers not to think for oneself but relies on guidance from others. However, according to him, emergence from a state of immaturity is dependent on a certain kind of freedom: one cannot achieve maturity whilst one is discouraged from thinking for oneself. It appears that immaturity cannot be regarded as self-incurred when authoritative measures are taken to intercept this freedom. In this case, immaturity is inflicted on children by those whose authoritarian views lead them to think for children rather than with them (Clegg, 2001). Since choices, discussions, decisions, reflections, judgements, and other activities that are necessary for exercising autonomy are to provide the justification for one’s thoughts and actions,

Dearden appears to presume the conceptual relationship between autonomy and rationality. The rationalistic model of autonomy might therefore be used to describe his idea of autonomy (Dearden, cited in Yoo, 1999). If we want autonomy as an educational goal, it should be quite evident that we need to have a knowledge concerning the methods, curricula, and organisational patterns which will best promote it (Yoo, 1999). Early papers by White and Dearden are the best place to go for the claims of the rationalistic model of autonomy and its underlying educational claim is.

According to White, who was cited by Yoo (1999) a central educational goal should be to nurture students who think independently for themselves, those who rely on reason instead of authority to support their points of view, and those who, precisely because they think independently  for themselves, creating out their own life plan in  accordance with their own knowledge, without being influenced by the opinions of the people around them. Their reasoning appears to be as follows: autonomy can only be exercised if a person has the skills necessary to think and act in accordance with their own mental activity.

Implications

By implication, the above arguments suggest, it would be wrong to assume that Critical thinking is just for advanced students. For the top students, critical thinking activities form an excellent enrichment activity, according to many teachers and administrators, but struggling students should only be expected to comprehend and grasp more fundamental content. This reasoning undervalues the less gifted kids and runs counter to what cognitive psychologists know generally about how people think.

Rationality should have unconditional value (unconditional on age or biological development) if unconditional value exists among rational beings and if value is placed in their rationality. Children think because they are rational beings and do not need to develop into rational thinkers as they get older. It may be argued by some sceptics of indivisible rationality that logicians may be better in reasoning compared to artists {Kant, in Hill, Thomas 1993}. However, this is to confuse what one reasons ‘on’ with what one reasons ‘with’. It is agreed, the fact that abilities may vary in using reasoning power, but reasoning itself is indivisible.

This could be supported by O’Neill’s interpretation of Kant which supports that “either human beings must lack even instrumental capacities to reason or they must have more than instrumental capacities to reason.” (O’Neill, 1989) That is to say if children are to be regarded as beings with capacities beyond those of non-humans then either they have capacities beyond those of ‘problem solving’ and have a capacity for practical reasoning or they have no reason at all. But we commonly believe the latter notion as inconceivable.

Conclusion

The paper examines the interconnectivity between the concepts and factors of dependence autonomy and critical thinking as conflicting factors in educational goals as it relates to children education. The paper concludes that despite the limitations of children’s capacity to think as adults probably because of their level of experience it would be wrong to make them over dependent on over stated learning outcomes which deny them the power to practice the independent thinking corresponding to their level of rationality and experience and these should have unconditional value in education for us to prepare them for a qualitative and autonomous education at the subsequent levels of higher/ tertiary education.

References

Dewey, J. (1902). The child and the curriculum. University of Chicago Press.

Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. D.C. Heath & Co., London.

Fisher, A. (2005). Critical thinking: An introduction. (7th ed.) Cambridge University Press.

Fisher, R. (1995). Teaching children to think (3rd ed.). Stanley Thomas Ltd., United Kingdom. pp.69-72.

Gredler, M. E. (2009). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Lipman, M. (2003). Critical thinking: What can it be? In A.C. Ornstein et. al. (Eds.), Contemporary issues in curriculum pp. 149-156. New York: Pearson.

O’neill, G., & Murphy, F. (2010). Guide to taxonomies of learning. UCD Teaching and Learning/Resources.

Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F.P. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues. M.A. Pearson, Boston.