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Abstract

The use of information and communication technology (ICT) has been shown to have a positive impact on the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria. Studies have found that the use of ICT in higher institutions can improve student engagement, motivation, and satisfaction, as well as the quality of instruction and learning outcomes. ICT has been found to increase access to education, improve communication between teachers and students, and foster collaboration and peer learning. ICT allows learners to explore different locations and environments without having to physically travel there. It enables learners to experiment with different scenarios and outcomes which can help them to better understand complex concepts. ICT provides great opportunities for learners to collaborate with each other, either in real time or asynchronously in order to share ideas and solve human problems together. The paper employs the philosophical methods of criticism, speculation and analysis. Having analyzed the importance of ICT, the challenges and opportunities that exist in Nigerian tertiary education, the work recommended among others that there should be improved access to ICT resources and infrastructure, faculty and staff of the tertiary institutions should be trained on the effective use of ICT in teaching and learning processes. More so there should be regular evaluation of the effectiveness of ICT – enabled learning and thereby making adjustment as needed.

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT); Quality of Nigeria Education;     Digital Libraries; Multimedia Resources; Instructional Resources

Introduction

The utilization of information and communication technology (ICT) has positively influenced the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria. Studies on the use of ICT in higher institutions had shown that it can improve student engagement, motivation, and satisfaction, as well as the quality of instruction and learning outcomes. (Idiong,2023; Adeogun,2003; Aloraini,2012). ICT can help to reduce the cost of education and make educational materials more accessible to students.

According to Ibe- Basset (2011) ICTs can expand access to education anytime and anywhere. It can transcend time and space, permit asynchronous and synchronous learning.  With ICTs, teachers and students do not rely solely on printed and other materials in physical media housed in libraries. Learning materials could be assessed in almost all subjects and in a variety of media anywhere at any time of the day and by an unlimited number of people. This novelty has really enhanced learning and teaching processes positively in tertiary Education in Nigeria.

This paper, therefore, examines the impacts of ICT and its challenges towards quality education in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria.

The Positive Impacts of ICT on Quality of Nigerian Tertiary Education

The use of ICT has helped to improve the quality of teaching and learning in a number of ways. For example, ICT can be used to deliver lectures and educational materials to students, either through online platforms or by providing access to digital libraries and other resources. Ugochukwu et al (2021) asserts that the application offers a paperless teaching and learning opportunity, which has resulted in positive findings. This can help to make learning more interactive and engaging, and can also allow students to learn at their own pace.

ICT has played a significant role in improving the quality of Nigerian tertiary Education. ICT has increased access to educational resources and materials. With the internet and other digital technologies, students can have access to a wealth of information, including textbooks, lectures, and other educational resources that can be accessed anytime and anywhere. This can help to improve the quality of education by making learning more flexible and accessible.

There are several ways that ICT can improve the quality of learning by providing access to digital libraries and other resources. Firstly, digital libraries allow for a wider range of resources to be accessed by students, as they are not limited by physical space or the number of physical copies available. Secondly, digital libraries can be accessed anytime and anywhere, which means that students can learn at their own pace and in their own time. Sequel to this, Idiong (2023) encouraged learning environment where there are ample opportunities for students to students’ discussion, collaboration and feedback. Thirdly, digital libraries can provide multimedia resources, such as videos, images, and interactive tools, which can help students to learn in a more engaging and effective way.

ICT has made learning more interactive and engaging. It has provided opportunities for students to actively participate in their learning, rather than passively absorbing information. This can be done through activities such as simulations, quizzes, and games.  ICT has provided opportunities for students to collaborate with each other, either in real time or asynchronously, to share ideas and solve problems together. Also ICT has provided opportunities for students to create and share their own content, such as through blogs, wikis, and podcasts.

In Simulations, students experienced and explored a simulated environment. Simulations can range from simple scenarios to complex, realistic simulations that mimic real-world situations. For example, a physics simulation might allow students to experiment with different forces and see the resulting motion in a virtual environment. A medical simulation might allow students to practice diagnosing and treating virtual patients. These types of simulations can provide a safe, risk-free environment for students to explore and learn, while also making the learning process more engaging and memorable.

Some examples of interactive tools that can be found in digital libraries include:
Interactive quizzes: These allow students to test their knowledge on a topic and receive            instant feedback on their answers.

Interactive simulations: These allow students to experiment with different scenarios and          outcomes, which can help them to better understand complex concepts.

Virtual field trips: These allow students to explore different locations and environments           without having to physically travel there.

Video tutorials: These provide step-by-step instructions on how to complete a task or    solve a problem.

Interactive timelines: These allow students to explore events and their connections over            time.

Educational games are another great way to make learning more interactive and engaging. Educational games can cover a wide range of topics, from language learning to history to science. These games often incorporate elements of competition and reward, which can help to keep students motivated and engaged. For example, students might earn points, badges, or other rewards as they progress through the game. Games can also be designed to be collaborative, allowing students to work together to solve problems and complete tasks. In addition, educational   and easy to use. Some examples of educational games include: ”Duolingo” is a language learning game that allows players to practice vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation through a variety of fun activities.

”Kahoot!” is a game-based learning platform that allows teachers to create quizzes, surveys, and polls for their students.

”Quizizz” is a game-based learning platform that allows students to compete with each other in real-time.- “World of Goo” is a physics-based puzzle game that allows players to build structures and solve problems using goo balls.

”Civilization VI” is a turn-based strategy game that teaches players about history, geography, and culture.

”Monument Valley” is a puzzle game that takes players on an adventure through impossible architecture and illusionary puzzles.

”Minecraft: Education Edition” is a modified version of the popular game “Minecraft” that is designed for educational purposes.

Possible challenges in the Utilization of ICT in Nigerian Tertiary Education
The use of ICT in Nigerian tertiary education has faced some challenges. One of the main challenges is the lack of adequate infrastructure and resources. Many institutions do not have the necessary hardware and software to fully utilize ICT, and this can hinder the quality of education. In addition, there is a lack of skilled personnel who can effectively use ICT in teaching and learning. This can result in a lack of effective integration of ICT into the curriculum, and can lead to frustration and lack of motivation among students.

Lack of hardware and software has a few key implications. It can lead to a lack of access to educational resources, such as e-books, online lectures, and other educational materials. It can limit the ability, which can reduce the effectiveness of learning. Interaction and collaboration are essential components of effective learning, and the lack of these can have a significant negative impact on the educational experience. When students and teachers cannot interact with each other, it can make it difficult for students to ask questions, receive feedback, and clarify their understanding of the material. Additionally, the lack of collaboration can make it difficult for students to work together on projects and assignments, limiting their ability to develop teamwork and problem-solving skills. Without these key components, students may not be able to get the most out of their educational experience, leading to a reduction in the overall quality of learning.

One major ways that the lack of effective integration of ICT into the curriculum can lead to frustration and lack of motivation among students is by creating a disconnect between what they are learning and how they are being tested. When students are being taught using ICT but then tested in traditional ways, such as paper-and-pencil tests, they may not be able to see the relevance of what they are learning and how it applies to the real world. This can lead to them feeling frustrated and unmotivated to engage in their studies.

Specifically other challenges include:

Limited access to ICT resources and infrastructure. Many institutions have limited budgets for ICT, which may limit the availability of computers, software, and other tools            needed for effective ICT-enabled learning.

Lack of training and support for faculty and staff. Without proper training and support, faculty and staff may not be able to effectively utilize ICT in their teaching and other work activities. Okobukola asserts that those who designated to use computers in school do not receive adequate training, at worst, do not receive any training at all.

Limited access to ICT resources and infrastructure can be a significant challenge for       Nigerian tertiary institutions. This may be due to a number of factors, including:

Budget constraints: Many institutions have limited budgets for ICT, which may not be     sufficient to meet the needs of the institution.

Geographic location: Some institutions may be located in rural areas where access to the internet and other ICT resources is limit

Capacity constraints: The capacity of the ICT infrastructure, such as bandwidth and     storage, may be limited, which can hinder the effective use of ICT.

Beside the cost of purchasing ICT equipment and software, there are ongoing costs associated with maintenance, upgrades, and support. Many institutions struggle to secure the necessary funding for these ongoing costs, which can lead to a deterioration of the ICT infrastructure over time. In some cases, ICT equipment may become outdated or unusable due to a lack of funds for maintenance and upgrades. This can create a “digital divide” between institutions that have the resources to maintain and upgrade their ICT infrastructure and those that do not. According to Aduwa and Iyamu (2005) Nigeria has over 2000 tertiary institutions, majority of them lack instructional resources such as computer, software, multimedia projector, white board, etc.

Geographic location can also be a significant challenge for ICT adoption in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Many institutions are located in rural areas where there is limited or no access to high-speed internet. Even in urban areas, internet connectivity may be unreliable or slow. This can make it difficult for students and faculty to access online resources, participate in online courses, and collaborate with others. In addition, many institutions may not have the financial resources to build the necessary infrastructure, such as computer labs and wi-fi networks, to support ICT-enabled learning. Another key challenge is the limited bandwidth available for internet access. Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred over a network at a given time. If there is not enough bandwidth, internet access may be slow or unreliable, which can impact the effectiveness of ICT-enabled learning. In addition, many institutions may have inadequate storage capacity for data and files, making it difficult to effectively use ICT for teaching and learning.

In many Nigerian tertiary institutions, faculty and staff may not have the necessary training or support to effectively use ICT. This can be a significant barrier to the adoption of ICT-enabled learning, as faculty may not know how to effectively integrate technology into their teaching. In addition, there may be a lack of support for faculty and staff in terms of technical assistance and troubleshooting. Without proper training and support, faculty and staff may become frustrated with the use of ICT and give up on its use altogether.

Even when ICT resources and support are available, some faculty and staff may still resist the use of ICT. This resistance can be due to a number of factors, such as:

The belief that traditional teaching methods are more effective than ICT-enabled learning

–   Concerns about the security of personal data and privacy.

–   Resistance to the change that comes with adopting new technologies.

–   Lack of time and resources to invest in learning new technologies.

These factors can make it difficult for institutions to effectively implement ICT-enabled learning, even when the resources and support are available.

Resistance to adopting new technologies can be especially challenging for older faculty members. These individuals may have been teaching for many years using traditional methods and may be reluctant to change their teaching style. In addition, they may have limited experience with technology and feel intimidated by the prospect of learning new tools and platforms. Furthermore, they may feel that the time and effort required to learn new technologies is not worth the potential benefits. All of these factors can contribute to a reluctance to adopt ICT-enabled learning.

Conclusion
From the foregone, the impacts of ICT have been one of the most remarkable phenomenal growth in a number and variety of ways. Educational sector has witnessed a catalyst of growth occasioned by this rapid innovation the challenges not withstanding. With this tremendous impacts, teaching and learning processes in Nigerian Tertiary Education have been effectively enhanced.

Recommendations
i. Improve access to ICT resources and infrastructure, including the provision of internet               access and computer labs.

1. Train academic staff on how to effectively use ICT in teaching and learning.
2. Create incentives for academic staff to adopt new technologies, such as through professional development opportunities.

iv. Encourage academic staff to share their experiences and best practices in using ICT. v.Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of ICT-enabled learning and make adjustments as needed.  

–   Concerns about the security of personal data and privacy.

–   Resistance to the change that comes with adopting new technologies.

–   Lack of time and resources to invest in learning new technologies.

These factors can make it difficult for institutions to effectively implement ICT-enabled learning, even when the resources and support are available.

Resistance to adopting new technologies can be especially challenging for older faculty members. These individuals may have been teaching for many years using traditional methods and may be reluctant to change their teaching style. In addition, they may have limited experience with technology and feel intimidated by the prospect of learning new tools and platforms. Furthermore, they may feel that the time and effort required to learn new technologies is not worth the potential benefits. All of these factors can contribute to a reluctance to adopt ICT-enabled learning.

Conclusion
From the foregone, the impacts of ICT have been one of the most remarkable phenomenal growth in a number and variety of ways. Educational sector has witnessed a catalyst of growth occasioned by this rapid innovation the challenges not withstanding. With this tremendous impacts, teaching and learning processes in Nigerian Tertiary Education have been effectively enhanced.

Recommendations

1. Improve access to ICT resources and infrastructure, including the provision of internet                       access and computer labs.
2. Train academic staff on how to effectively use ICT in teaching and learning.
3. Create incentives for academic staff to adopt new technologies, such as through professional development opportunities.
4. Encourage academic staff to share their experiences and best practices in using ICT. v.Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of ICT-enabled learning and make adjustments as            needed.

References

Adeogun, M. (2003). The Digital and University Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. African

Journal of Library, Archival and Information Science, 13 (1): 11-20.

Aloraini, S. (2012). The Impact of Using Multimedia on Students’ Academic Achievement in the College of Education at King Saud University. Journal of King Saud University. Vol 24(2):75-85.

Aduwa-Ogiegbaen, E. S. & Iyamu, S. O. (2005). Using Information and Communication Technology in Secondary Schools in Nigeria: Problems and Projects. Educational Technology & Society. https://www.ifets.infor/journals/8-1/13.

Ibe-Bassey, G. S. (2011). Human Capacity Building For Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Integration In Teacher Education in Nigeria. A lead paper presented at the 32nd International Conference of the Nigeria Association for Educational Media and Technology (NAEMT) at Evan Enwerem University, Owerri, from September, 19-23.

Idiong, S, Aladejana J & Ukulor D, (2023). The use of E-library on Teachers’ Instructional Delivery in Public Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom North-West Senatorial District. Journal of Humanity and Social Policy (JHSP) E-ISSN 2445-2495 2416 Vol.9(1) 14. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?oi=bibs&cluster=5468794222002683376&btnI=1&hl=en

Idiong, S. P. (2023) Enhancing Teachers’ Instructional Delivery in Public Secondary Schools. Bolton: Lambert Academic Publishing (p.27). https://selar.co/7z2628

Okebukola P. (2018) Old, New and current Technology in Education. UNESSCO Africa, 14 (15), 7-18.

Ugochukwu, N. J; Ugochukwu, A. & Uzomaka, (2021) Assessing the challenges of utilizing Google classroom in teaching among early childhood care educators. Journal of Education and society. ISSN: 1596-1462 Vol.11(3)p.1869.

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Abstract

A tradition where some women think that certain disciplines are not to be studied by women is referred to as Stereotype. Stereotypes may have been responsible for women’s underrepresentation in certain fields, like the philosophy of education, and consequently have contributed to the insufficient number of women’s representation in this field (philosophy of education). This paper interrogates women’s stereotyping within the context of the philosophy of education as an academic discipline. It argues that not many women are represented in the field, since 2014, the percentage of women’s involvement in philosophy has been fluctuating from the range of 30- 33 per cent and it seeks to delve into the subtle biases and stereotypical assumptions that female students encounter while pursuing the philosophy of education as a course of study. The article proposes a pervasive undercurrent of gender-based stereotyping, which manifests in various forms where female students feel marginalised, underestimated, and sometimes subjected to the biased expectations of both peers and instructors. These stereotypes not only impact their academic experiences but also contribute to a broader gender gap within the domain of the philosophy of education.

Keywords: Bias, Higher Education, Philosophy of Education, Stereotyping, Women

Introduction

A stereotype is when people have an untrue or unfair view of a thing and their representation of such a thing. Stereotypes can be a perceived character by a group of people.^[1]  A situation where women display an attitude of belief that affects their mindset and directly or indirectly affects their choices in the course of study in the institution of learning. The University of Ibadan (UI) is a research institution since 1948^[2], formerly recognised as University College Ibadan. It is a heterogeneous university with different ethnic groups in the admission of students and staff employment into various departments, irrespective of race, age, gender, tribe, social class, physically challenged persons, and religion. 
The education of an individual is important for self-actualisation and it is also essential for the needs of society. This is why an institution’s philosophy informs the facet of such an institution in its level of development. As such, the educational philosophy of such an institution is designed to meet the needs and aspirations of the citizens and society at large. Women are part of society, and the need for their required education is a necessity as well as the right to participate in any area of interest of their choice. This is one of the reasons the national policy on women’s access to education stipulated the guiding principle of reorienting the public on the proper understanding of societal norms and values as they affect the roles of males and females towards educational development.^[3]  

Women are nation builders, Purity Udjoh and Anthony Onyishi supported this as they mentioned that Nigerian women irrespective of their religion, ethnic group or place of abode are talented, gifted and hardworking^[4].  The challenge of not having the presence of these hard-working and talented women in the field of philosophy of education calls for concern therefore, this paper argues on the number of women stereotyping in the philosophy of education, noting that the number of women represented in the study of the philosophy of education is limited.  The record has it that since 1970 the involvement of women in philosophy has increased slowly, however, research suggests that the gender gap in philosophy is significant although,^[5] in 2014, the percentage of women’s involvement in philosophy has fluctuated which ranges between the range of 30-33 per cent^[6] but to the writer’s knowledge, no research has reviewed the number of women’s involvement in philosophy of education.

In the past, the record has it that canonical philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, John Locke, John Dewey, and R. S. Peters, just to mention a few, were great Western philosophers whose thoughts were expressed on ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics. In Africa, men in philosophy, the likes of Kwame Nkrumah, Julius Nyerere, Jones Akinpelu, Aliu Fafunwa, Awolowo, Jim Nesi Omatseye, Owan Enoh, Kola Babarinde, and a host of others have also expressed their perspectives which have been very dominant in this field of human knowledge; the relevance of women has not been very encouraging, like the way it is making waves in other fields of study. 

The challenges of having fewer women in the field of philosophy of education have not made many women express their thoughts to be on the list of renowned philosophers of education in Africa, hence, one could ask, if stereotyping is a challenge in having women’s active participation in the philosophy of education. A stereotype would be seen as a perceived character by a group of people.^[7] Women’s stereotyping is a practice that could be a fixed pattern of behaviour and belief found among women in society, like false beliefs, false assumptions, and groundless ideas.⁸

This article is aimed at critically analysing the role of the philosophy of education as a course of study and how it affects women’s representation, the subtle biases and stereotypical assumptions that female students encounter while pursuing the philosophy of education as a course, the state of diversity and inclusiveness of women in the philosophy of education, and further seeking solutions to these issues and their implications for education. Finally, the conclusion and recommendations will require the attention of policymakers, educators in the field, philosophers and concerned groups in the society.

Understanding Stereotype

Stereotypes are a way of representing and judging other people in fixed, unyielding terms^[8] Women stereotyping is a practice that could be a fixed pattern of behaviour and belief found among women in society like false beliefs, false assumptions, and groundless ideas.¹⁰ When something is stereotypic or stereotyping that would mean that the character of that thing or person is valence. Stereotype is not just any generalisation of assumptions about a thing or a group rather it could be involved in widely held images of socially obvious groups, stereotypes are also seen as cultural entities that are widely held by persons in the culture or society in question and widely recognised by the person who may not themselves hold stereotype.^[9] For example, the saying that philosophy is abstract or that philosophers do not believe in God.  Another example is the assumption that Nigerians are corrupt, which implies that having a bad experience with a corrupt individual from Nigeria should not make all Nigerians corrupt. This premise cannot be said to be a valid statement, because it is seen as a generalised statement. When one says X group is stereotyped in a particular way, that is to rather say that X has an attribute of a certain sociocultural context of salient images. However, we may generalise issues and concepts but these issues may be false and misleading like in the case of seeing women as weaker vessels or beings than some of their male counterparts meanwhile some men are rather seen to be weaker than the women. The issues of stereotypes may affect the attitude toward women’s representation and performance. To improve women’s enrolment and participation in philosophy of education, there will be need to understand the role of philosophy of education.

Philosophy of education and women under-representation

To understand the philosophy of education, the concept will be briefly analysed. Philosophy has a comprehensive system of ideas about human nature and it helps in guiding the human ways of living, that is why the quest for truth lies in the origin of philosophy, when humans wonder about issues that borders on questions like; why are there male and female creature? Why is a gender considered superior to the other? Can life be fair? Does life really mean anything? What is knowledge? Why do I know what I know? How do I know that I know? All these are questions seeking for understanding, which is seeking for the truth and the search for wisdom.

Philosophy as a field of study is seen as the root of all other disciplines, and every discipline needs a philosophy to stand. Every discipline (course of study) can be influenced by the philosophy, as it draws its materials from philosophical bases. It is designed to help students improve on their intelligence thereby enhancing their ability in making decision and avoiding faulty reasoning in problem solving environment. This is therefore, stating that there is need to study philosophy of education as it seen as a prerequisite to decision making through critical thinking, women are not to be left behind in the sphere of affairs that brings about positive change.

Philosophy of education tends to address issues of education in the aspect of certain fundamental principles like the methodologies, educational goals, practices, its polices as they affect human nature and values. In the paper “Introduction: philosophy of education and philosophy” Harvey posited that philosophy of education is that branch of philosophy that handles philosophical issues on human nature, the aims and problems of education,^[10] with this exposition that states that philosophy of education is to address the problem of education, thus the issue with women stereotype can be handled by promoting individuality regardless of gender thereby implementing the educational policies that focus on personal self-actualization.  The challenge of women stereotyping has become a phenomenon where a few women have been involved in this course of study.

The philosophy of education critic the general body of education as it contributes to curriculum development. It leads to the development of philosophical ideas that are gender neutral, hence the place of biases and stereotypes are eliminated. It is involved in the critical evaluation and systematic reflection on general theories. The rational function of philosophy of education is embodied by increasing the student’s ability to critical thinking. There is an empowerment of critical thinking that enhances women’s engagement in challenging stereotypes. 

Another role of philosophy of education is to solve educational problems through philosophical processes with an affirmative policy to increase women’s representation in academics. Philosophy of education has made more emphases on critical thinking to be taught in schools by teachers because knowing and understanding subject matters is not as adequate as teaching critical thinking due to its importance to knowledge and skill building.

Diversity and Inclusiveness, the philosophy of education has been involved in tackling the issue of diversity and inclusion. The educational environment helps to admit and promote people from diverse tribes and cultures irrespective of age and status thereby, combating against oppressive education. 

Under-representation of women in the philosophy of education in tertiary Institutions

Why are there few women in the philosophy of education? the feminist nature of a woman comes with compassion, nurturing and softness, the prestige of a woman is saddled with the responsibility of caring, which has left a lot of women to be found in female-dominated fields of studies like Early childhood education, Nursing department, Secretarial studies, guidance and counselling, home management to mention but a few. Adedevoh supported this, in a paper where it was argued that women are seen to be very supportive in nurturing and building the future of people by being agents of change.^[11] It was also argued by Sander cited by Arjun Sckhar and Parameswari^[12] that some courses like STEM and other related male-dominated professions like Pilots, soccer-games, construction, (and philosophy of education not being an exception) have made many women feel uncomfortable to venture and explore in the supposedly male-dominated profession. This is reflected in the thought of Reinking and Martins^[13], they mentioned that women are also encouraged to choose art and nursing courses due to their soft nature. Gender bias in the society sometimes restricts people from achieving their dreams because the societal norms have regarded some disciplines to be suitable for only men. 

Individual beliefs and interests which play a significant part in women choosing a vocation or choice of discipline are other possible factors responsible for the non-enrolment in the department. There have been extensive research articles on gender stereotypes, Gender stereotype relates to how people usually devalue the effort and performance of women who are found in the position assumed to be for men, in such instances, women’s hard work is often mistaken for luck. The intimidation of female students has made a lot of women feel marginalised, this unfortunate stereotype has made them feel inferior to their male counterparts, and this has made a lot of women suffer from disorientation and low self-esteem. 

Taking a case study of personal experience, being the only female student among other men in this field of study has been an issue of concern, as a post-graduate student of philosophy of education.

I was the only female among the five (5) men during my master’s programme, and I am still the only female among 3 men in the unit as a PhD student. The current 2022/23 session students have no registered students in the philosophy of education. Another case is the case of the retired professor Oluremi Bamisaiye who was the only female in the unit (Philosophy of Education) until after her retirement, in the year 2007, there has not been any woman to replace her. One will wonder why the department has lacked students especially female students to be enrolled, the non-enrolment of students in the department will affect the employment of staff into the field of study. 

How stereotype affects the psychosocial and emotional character of women

Internalised stereotypes can cause low self-esteem, low self-esteem is one emotional challenge women face when confronting stereotypes, in a situation where women feel incapable of expressing their hidden potential, it hurts the numbers or percentage of women enrolment in the field of study and (philosophy of education) thereby affecting and bringing down their confidence and lower their self-esteem. There is also less participation when women think that they are not as competent enough as their male counterparts, it affects their confidence and their drive to achieve academic heights as individuals which invariably affects the percentage of women’s representation in the field of study. 

The Effect of Stereotypes on the Educational Status of Women

Personalised stereotypes can lead to reduced academic and professional pursuits. Stereotypes can bring about self-judgement making the individual feel inadequate in their abilities to express the great potential in their academic and professional ambition.  In cases where the percentage of men to women is like a ratio of 1:10, the presence of more men to women in the field (philosophy of education) will directly or indirectly affect the scheme of work, topics, course contents and even the designing of the curriculum The gender role in curriculum design is very obvious that the female’s contribution will be very minimal due to the majority of male philosophers coupled with the fact that the course content that is relatively gender biased with the thoughts and ideas of mostly men, it is less interesting and the perspectives of more men will supersede their female counterparts thereby limiting the number of female representation in the field.  

Moreover, the leadership position and role may sometimes be considered more suitable for men looking at women as inadequate to handle crucial issues as they are perceived to be too sentimental to handle certain matters. Women stereotype causes the underrepresentation of women thereby limiting the access of women to women’s mentorship, the fewer women, the more limited access to mentorship and networking that will lead to career advancement. However, this may not be the case as usually assumed because the philosophy of education is a discipline that is open to all (male, female, all tribes, all religions and people from all works of life) People are free to express their academic prowess, no one is marginalised, and no topic is treated with levity. It is based on that, that is there is a curriculum.

The curriculum is designed and influenced based on the history of the society, the needs and how relevant the content will be to the individual and the society at large. Mzankomo stated that according to the reconstructionist, the curriculum should meet the needs of the individual and the society^[14]. Another critique is that the limited number of women in the field to serve as role models and mentors to younger women is not enough reason not to have more women in the philosophy of education because other professional women should be seen as an encouragement to younger women because of their great achievement and recognition in the society.  

Placing too much emphasis on role models and mentorship will pin down the abilities of individuals in their academic ambitions. More so, these biases in the evaluation for promotion to hold leadership roles may be from the empirical perspective because one may argue that there are ethical rules or principles guiding the conduct of the institution to be objective and individual’s performance and merit will rule out biases.

Stereotypical Assumptions and women’s involvement in philosophy of education

Stereotypes can be generalised beliefs, ideas, assumptions or views of people about things or a group of people based on their race, sex, rights, and nationality. Stereotypes can be good but when it becomes a negative phenomenon, it affects the social, religious, cultural and academic lifestyle of the people. Philosophy of education may be facing this challenge due to the following assumptions;

The orientation of students and the stereotypical assumptions that the philosophy of education is characterised with content that seems too abstract to understand, on the contrary, the philosophy of education is an applied aspect of education, and the method of teaching is carried out with contemporary examples that will make the learning experience effective. It is argued that gender, male and female have different thinking patterns in the processing and handling of issues. Claiming that women tend to be intuitive and emotional while men are perceived to be logical and analytical in problem-solving.  According to Tripoli, where he explained the canonical tradition that described women to be more emotional and intuitive while the men were perceived to be rational in their thinking thereby making men traditionally suitable for such field of study such as science and philosophy.^[15]This was also supported by Valian, who argued that philosophy of education has been traditionally made for men, there-by making women to unconsciously accept the negative perception which is expressed as an internalised stereotype.¹⁸ One might argue that there have been women who have made significant contributions to the field of philosophy of education, there are women like Grace Alele-Williams, the account of Professor emeritus Oluremi Bamisaiye, and Hauwa Mahdi who have written on issues concerning moral education, gender equality and education for sustainable development. To also mention the South African philosopher with interest on Ethics and Social Justices Mpho Pheko, as well as Sophia Oluwole, the yoruba philosopher whose interest was on African philosophy and a host of other few women who have expressed their academic thoughts.

Philosophy of education may not be seen as a career prospect compared to another field of study, however, studying philosophy of education is said to be useful only when one plans to go into lecturing. Nevertheless, the philosophy of education is very important when it is introduced in secondary school, it will enlighten the students on critical thinking skills, logical and rational reasoning in problem-solving which is vital for every individual in any organisation, The majority of students especially girls and women as undergraduate and postgraduate students are unaware of the role philosophy of education play in the society, this can be one of the factors for women underrepresentation in the course of study. A stereotype is where the mindset of women has been traditionally fixed to place more value in other fields and that their place and role in the society should not exceed such fields as childcare, nursing, and homemaking rather than in fields that will require the intelligent capability which has also contributed in the limited numbers of women representation in the field of study.  

The Benefit of Diversity and Inclusiveness of Women in the Philosophy of Education

The University of Ibadan is known as a heterogenous institution and unbiased in the enrolment of students and staff has a lot to do to ensure that there is a balance for equal representation in various departments, especially philosophy of education for the sake of this research, this will promote diversity in the area of race, age, religion, status as well as a different perspective, especially from the women folk. The need to enrol students in the Department of Philosophy of Education is very important to fill the gap of women’s absence in the department, their ideals, thoughts and perspectives will enrich and promote the advancement of knowledge. The presence of women in the department will encourage younger generations, there will also be more opportunities for women to express their talents in the field in any sphere of life can bring about development. According to Anderson where he argued that the female gender is important in philosophy as their perspective will be highly recommendable and relevant to the improvement in the aspect of curriculum development and design, the content to be taught in the class that will be gender sensitive and their role of mentorship^[16]. The philosophy of education is liberal and its principles can be applied to promote diversity and inclusiveness in the educational system taking into consideration that everyone is to be given equal and fair treatment where the right of no man will be infringed.

The inclusion of people from diverse spheres of life will help to tackle the issue of ethics and moral education, the presence of women will serve as an edge to bridge the gap of immoral matters, and it will encourage the enhancement of moral issues rather than putting more concentration on just and rationality with more focus on training intelligence and critical thinking. 

One of the purposes of education is for self -actualisation, there is a need for every woman to attain this goal, regardless of this purpose, the national policy on education advocates for social justice, and equality and highlights education as an instrument for development. This highlight brings to mind that, social justice and equality in any sphere of life can reduce stereotypic assumptions among women and aspiring students of philosophy. The gap in the philosophy of education could lead to limited perspectives because the presence of stereotypes can limit the perspective of female philosophers and the diversity of ideas and thoughts that will not be recognised will make educational issues incomplete. 

In addition, this stereotype can result in not recognising the women’s contribution to the philosophy of education thereby making it detrimental to the field and other aspiring younger female students. Only a few numbers of interested students register in the field of study, the minimal number of total registered students during admission into the department will eventually affect the employment of staff in the same department hence resulting in the under-representation of women in the philosophy of education. The absence of women can lead to a vacuum in their knowledge expression which will affect younger aspiring female students in the field of study, the representation of the female gender in the philosophy of education will be highly important and recommendable to improve the content and design of the curriculum.

There will be an increase in the number of registered and aspiring females through mentorship to improve student’s interests and academic pursuits. The philosophy of the University of Ibadan is liberal and its principles can be applied to promote diversity and inclusiveness in education, especially in philosophy of education thereby bridging the gap.

Critique

The active participation and domination of men in the philosophy of education in the University of Ibadan has become historical which has made diversity and inclusiveness of the perspective of women to be lacking thereby making educational issues limited to tackle and improve the system.

The issue of bias in philosophical thoughts and theories may unintentionally fail to tackle genderrelated educational issues in the field of study. Inclusive practices may result in possible solutions to educational issues like mentoring other women encouraging diverse perspectives and promoting the works of female scholars which can be discouraged if the policy of inclusiveness is not considered but placing too much emphasis on this support system (mentorship) will undermine the ability of personal autonomy and responsibility. The presence of stereotypes and these assumptions discussed above may not necessarily be responsible for women’s non-enrolment and under-representation in the philosophy of education as a discipline, the lack of student enrolment is not limited to only females, both men and women are faced with these challenges of life choice or the choice of course to study as a discipline.

Conclusion and recommendation

This methodology of literature review indicated that the philosophy of education unit University of Ibadan as an institution will need to put certain measures in place as this paper reviewed and has brought to the limelight the under-representation of women in the field of philosophy of education. Women stereotyping in the philosophy of education in the institution is a challenge. This is reflected and evident that there is a lack of female presence as role models (mentorship) which acts as a barrier to women’s participation and academic progress. The number of students enrolment into the department is very minimal, especially the female students, there is also a lack of sensitisation or awareness programmes to enlighten the populace about the department.

As a matter of paramount concern, it is imperative for the unit (philosophy of education) and the university as an institution to put proactive measures to combat his challenges by ensuring that there is a balance in staff employment to fill the gap of women’s under-representation. The issue of stereotypes can be tackled when teachers of philosophy of education who tend to value inclusiveness and equality can work on student’s mind-set thereby transforming their fixed mindset and encouraging them to get involved in the deconstruction of stereotypes in any environment. There is also a need to create more awareness of this course from secondary school, there are so many people (students)who are unaware of philosophy of education as a course of study.

 The need to make provision for scholarships can also increase the number of students enrolment into the department and finally, this paper is strongly advocating for women’s role as mentors to encourage and empower younger aspiring students. 

However, this methodology review identifies gaps in the articles and suggests future research areas that scholars may want to examine to enrich and increase the numbers of women representation and break down stereotypes in the philosophy of education.

Bibliography 

Adedevoh, I.O. 2001. Feminist professionalism and educational leadership, an approach to capacity building in Nigeria university, the Nigeria society 4(2) 

Anderson. E. 1995 Feminist epistemology and philosophy of science Philosophy of science, 65(4) p. 59-61

Folola, T. 2023. Ibadan in Ibadan: The University and the City. Department of History the University of Texas at Austin. p.226

Michael, P. 2015 Stereotyping and Stereotypes The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism

Mzankomo, E. 1996. Curriculum and society: A leaders perspective A mini-Dissertation.

            Rand Afrikaans University. P.1

National policy on gender in basic education 2006 Federal Ministry of education Nigeria, Pg.8

Ogwuche, O.C, Adikwu, V.O & Ossai, O.V Stereotype and women empowerment in Nigeria: The Need for a paradigm shift in the role of counsellors & school psychologists. The educational psychologist 11(1) p.167.

Reinkings, A.S. & Martins, B. 2018 The gender gap in STEM fired theories, movements and ideas to engage girls in STEM. Journal of new approach in educational research, 7(2) p.148-153.

Sander. J, 2005 Gender and technology in education A research review Seattle: Centre for Gender equity cited by P.M, Arjun Sckhar and J, Parameswari, Gender stereotype in education Periyar University, Salem, Tamilnadu, India.  P.3.

Siegel, H. 2010. Introduction:  Philosophy of education and philosophy University of Maimi, pg 1  Tripodi, V. 2017. The value of diversity and inclusiveness in philosophy. An overview. 

Udjoh Purity and Onyishi Anthony, 2024.  Empowering Nigerian women as tools for nation building AAPS Conference 2024. Retrieved July 26^th 2024.

United Nations Human Rights 2014 Gender stereotypes and stereotyping and women’s rights office of the higher commissioner.

Valian, V. 1998. Why so slow The advancement of women, MIT press. p. 3-17

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[1] National Humans Right 2014, Gender stereotyping and Women’s Rights Office of the High Commissioner.

[2] Folola, T 2023 Ibadan in Ibadan: The University and the City” department of History the University of Texas at Austin. 2023 p.226

[3] National policy on gender in basic education 2006 Federal Ministry of education Nigeria P. 8 

[4] Udjoh Purity and Onyishi Anthony, 2024.  “Empowering Nigerian Women as tools for nation building” AAPS Conference 2024. Retrieved  July 26^th 2024.

[5] Carolyn Dicey Jennings & Eri Schwtzgebel 2017 “Women in philosophy: Quantitative Analyses of specialisation, prevalence, visibility and generational change” Public Affairs Quarterly 31(2)

[6] Kostas Theologou, Spyridon Stelios & Simon Iliadi 2018 “Is the lack of women in philosophy a universal phenomenon? Exploring women representation in Greek department of philosophy” Hypatia, A Journal of feminist philosophy vol 33(3)

[7] United Nations Human right 2014 Gender stereotypes and stereotyping and women’s right” office of the high commissioner. ⁸ Ibid 2014 

[8] Michael Pickering 2015 “Stereotyping and Stereotypes” The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism

[9] Lawrence. B, 2004 Stereotypes and stereotyping: moral analysis Philosophical paper Vol 33, No3 P.252

[10] Siegel, H. 2010 Introduction:  Philosophy of education and philosophy” University of Maimi pg 1

[11] Adedevoh, I.O “Feminist professionalism and educational leadership, an approach to capacity building in Nigeria university, the Nigeria society 4(2) cited by alozie, O.C, Adikwu, V.O & Ossai, O.V “Stereotype and women empowerment in Nigeria: The Need for a paradigm shift in role of counsellors & school psychologists. The educational psychologist Vol 11, NO.1 pg 167.

[12] Sander, J. 2005 “Gender and Technology in education: A research review Seattle centre for Gender equality cited by P.M, Arjun

Sckhar and J, Parameswari  “Gender stereotype in education” Periyar University, Salem, Tamilnadu, India, P.3

[13] Rethinkings, A.S & Martins, B. 2018 “The gender gap in STEM fired theories, movement and ideals to engage girls in STEM. Journal of a new approach in Educational Research 7(2) 148-153

[14] Eunice Mzankomo 1996 “Curriculum and Society: A leaders perspective” A mini-Dissertation Rand Afrikaans University. P.1

[15] Tripodi. V, 2017 The value of diversity and inclusiveness in philosophy. An overview, p.3-17 ¹⁸ Valian. Valerie, 1998 Why so slow, The advancement of women MIT press 1998.

[16] Anderson, E 1995 Feminist epistemology and philosophy of science” Philosophy of science, 65(4) pp. 59-61

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Abstract

This paper examines quota system regime and quality of Nigerian tertiary Education. In Nigeria, there is a perceived gap in education between the North and the South – dating as far back as before Nigerian independence in 1960. This gap has generated a lot of controversies and debates among both the academia and the politicians. In an effort to narrow this gap, the government at various times   came up with different policies aimed at addressing this educational disparity. One out of other measures taken by different regimes in government is the introduction of quota system in admission of students into Federal tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The policy of quota system in admission of students into Federal tertiary institutions has been criticized as unjust, discriminatory and detrimental to national development. The authors examined the concepts of quota system, quota system in education, quality education and tertiary education. The paper also attempted an appraisal of quota system regime and quality of Nigerian tertiary education. The quota system, introduced to promote diversity and inclusivity, has been criticized for compromising academic standards and perpetuating inequality. Using a analytic method approach, this paper examines the effects of quota system on student admissions, academic performance, and teacher quality. The authors of this paper noted that the quota system has led to a decline in academic standards. Furthermore, the study highlights the need for a nuanced quota system that balances diversity and meritocracy, addresses systemic inequalities, and promotes transparency and accountability. The research contributes to the ongoing debate on the quota system regime and its implications for quality education in Nigeria, providing insights for policymakers, educators and stakeholders.  The paper recommends among other things that allocation of at least 70 percent of admission slots should be on merit, regardless of the state, zone, creed or gender of the students; that recruitment of teaching and non teaching staff must also be strictly based on merit – irrespective of tribe, religion and any politically motivated reasons; and that the use of quota system in admission of students into tertiary institutions in Nigeria should be reviewed periodically and adjusted to reflect changing demographics and regional development needs.

Keywords: quota system, quota system in education, quality education, tertiary education, Nigeria

Introduction:

The introduction of quota system in Nigerian tertiary education has been a contentious one because of tribal sentiments, biases and perceived abuses. Nigeria is a multicultural, linguistic and religious nation – with about 371 tribes.¹ The plurality and diversity of the entity called Nigeria is the source of its beauty, strength, and sad to say, her weakness also. The beauty and strength are seen in the array of beautiful cultures, enormity of talents, and human and material endowment by nature. The endemic struggle for supremacy, control of political power and natural resources by the various ethnic nationalities that constitute the geographical space called Nigeria is one of its weaknesses.

 In the political and economic sectors, there are agitations, hews and cry by some ethnic nationalities, and sometimes, religious groups, against perceived injustices and marginalization against their members. In the education sector, there are also agitations for inclusiveness and equal educational opportunities by members of some ethnic nationalities in Nigeria. These agitations date as far back as the colonial era. According to Nwabufo², quota system became a principle in Nigeria in 1958, essentially, as a response to fears of marginalization and ethnic domination in education and government. Rightly so, the author said, the system was contrived to resolve the atavistic misgivings. 

The federal character principle as well was devised – and it became a constitutional provision in 1979 to manage Nigeria’s diverse character; so that no section of the country will lord it over others or become overwhelmingly dominant in the public service. It was designed to ensure inclusive and equitable demographic/ethnic representation at all levels of government. It was for socio-political balancing. Olabisi ³ pointed out that the major reason for formulating the quota policy is to foster equitable development and unity among the over 300 ethnic nationalities in the country. Regrettably, he lamented that the evidence on ground shows that the system is not only killing the quest for excellence and distinction in some parts of the country, it is making others to wallow in frustration and giving them a sense of dejection⁴.

It was observed that the representation of ethnic groups in federal tertiary institutions and public service was lopsided. This lopsidedness and imbalance culminated in outcry and agitation, leading to creation of a quota for accessing public service in 1958. A quota of 50% was allotted to the North and 25% each to the East and West. The quota system was introduced as an idea before the federal character principle. But it wasn’t adhered to, as the University of Ibadan rejected it in favour of merit for admission.⁴

Approximately seven years after Nigerian independence, precisely in May 1967, the then Eastern Nigeria broke away from Nigeria – accusing the rest of Nigerian of deliberate and malicious marginalization. This struggle for the independent state of Biafra led to the brutal and fratricidal civil war between Nigeria and the defunct Biafran 1970. After the thirty months war, the government in power introduced a policy of reintegration to promote equal representation and inclusiveness in government.⁵ This policy, sadly, was never implemented till date. 

According to Okoh et. al,^{6 “}by 1979 under General Obasanjo, the Constitution Drafting

recommended

Committee could sense a rift between ethnic rivalry and thereforea provision to hinder the dominance of a few states and ethnic groups for national stability. The military government, resolute about Nigeria’s unity, especially after a civil war, accepted the federal character principle as an initiative to curb dominance and foster a sense of belonging and balance in Nigeria’s political and administrative setup”. 

Section 14(3) of the 1999 constitution as amended, captures the federal character saying: ‘‘The composition of the Government of the Federation or any of its agencies and the conduct of its affairs shall be carried out in such a manner as to reflect the federal character of Nigeria and to promote national unity and also to command national loyalty, thereby ensuring that there shall be no predominance of persons from  a few states or from a few ethnic  or other sectional  groups in that government or any of its agencies.⁷

Based on the constitution, the purpose of the federal character was to prevent the dominance by any sectional group, be it ethnic, geographic or religious, in the country’s political governance. But, the federal character is not the only principle of representation. A quota system also exists, though both terms are often used interchangeably. Here’s a good example to better understand them.

Section 147 [3] of the Nigerian Constitution mandates that the President appoints a minister from each state of the federation to reflect the federal character of Nigeria in appointments to public offices⁸ This section of the law, on the one hand, took care of agitations against maginalization by some parts of the country. On the other hand, the quota system was created to address inequality and provide opportunities for the brightest among groups lacking sufficient representation in places like the civil service, military and admissions into tertiary institutions.

In Nigeria, quota system is a very familiar concept in education sector. It is one out of other educational policies in Nigeria meant to bridge the gap in education between the predominantly Moslem Northern and the Christian predominantly Southern Nigeria. This policy dates back to before Nigeria’s independence. policies the most widely recognized gap and the most politically sensitive talking point in Nigeria is the educational imbalance between the Southern and Northern states of the country, Nduka⁹ observed that the Southern states which had been historically more responsive to Western Christian influences and education have made more educational progress than the predominantly Moslem Northern States, where the Christian influence was to a large extent rejected. The effect of this rejection can be noticeable in the imbalance which is not only reflected in the primary level but also both secondary and tertiary levels of education. A university is different from other academic institutions because its preoccupation is not only in the diffusion of knowledge but its extension. The university yearns for truth and subjects existing body of knowledge to critical examination and analysis to see if it needs revision. As centre for excellence universities are also expected to set the pace for the large society in the efficient and effective management of human and material resources. The problem of admissions into Nigerian tertiary institutions and the maintenance of adequate standard have been associated with some unpopular policies adopted by the Federal Government of Nigeria to address the inadequacy in the number of admission places in the tertiary education system. These unpopular polices include among others the following:

1. Backwardness factor policy that ensured a certain percentage of admission chances was reserved for the states considered to be educationally disadvantaged or backward. 
2. Catchment area policy which provided that a certain percentage of admission places must be reserved for the indigenes of the areas in which universities are located. 
3. Quota system policy provided the allocation of certain percentages of admission places into Nigerian universities based on populations, ethnic consideration and states of origin. 
4. Discriminatory fees policy provided for lower fees to be paid by the indigenes of the localities where universities are established. 

Akani (1996)⁸ posits that the above policies resulted in the reduction of admission standards and this allowed poorly qualified candidates to be admitted into Nigerian tertiary institutions. This is because quota system policy has conferred on the various categories of persons the right of admission whether qualified in the strict sense of it or not. Akani further noted that the quality of tertiary education in Nigeria has consequently been lowered as a result of policies which apparently de-emphasize quality. Oduwaiye¹⁰ warned that much as it is good that the educationally disadvantaged area is being encouraged, it should not be at the detriment of others in a situation where a candidate does not gain access just because of his birth place which is not too good. Enemuo¹¹ argued that the policy encourages social discrimination of one group against the other. The author maintained that the quota system in all its ramifications favours mediocrity over and above quality or excellent performance due to candidate’s state of origin, local government area, tribe, nepotism or ethnic or religious background rather than by merit or excellence. Enemuo further pointed out that the application of the quota system to admission of candidates into tertiary institutions deny many fine brains from areas considered as educationally advantaged states opportunity of gaining admission. It is frustrating to candidates from the educationally advanced states when they see their counterparts from educationally disadvantaged states with university matriculation examination scores of 200 out of 400 getting admission into the universities but his/her counterpart from educationally advantaged states with higher scores of 300 out of 400 are not admitted because admissions are based on quota system policy. Thus quota system has conferred undue advantages on some candidates who come from areas that are considered as educationally disadvantaged states. This has created inequality in the provision of tertiary education to those who are better qualified than those who because of quota system policy were given admission.

Concept of Quota System

The term quota system is widely used in many sectors. Some of these sectors are political, economic and education sectors. From political point of view, Oxford Learners dictionary¹² defined quota system as a policy that limits the number of immigrants from any one country who may officially enter the U.S. each year. This type of quota system is practiced in many countries of the world. This is to ensure that one particular country does not dominate or is not favoured more than others in any given circumstance. In the same vein, the dictionary defined quota system in economic sector as a policy that limits the amount of particular goods that can enter or leave a country.  Webster’s third New international Dictionary¹³ defines “Quota” as the share or proportion received, granted or necessary to a person as being one of a certain number assigned to ‘party’ (e.g. an institution with a quoted admission policy).

From a general point of view, Obielumani¹³ defined quota system as any selection method (for employment, school admission, among others) whereby a certain set of percentage of those selected must be of a given ethnic or racial background and/or of a particular sex. Kabir (2021)¹⁴ defined quota system as a selection method (for employment, school admission, among others) that, after reviewing an institution’s facilities, allocates certain percentages based on specific qualities, needs or profiles such as ethnicity and state of origin. In this paper, quota system is to be understood as practice of selecting a certain predetermined percentage or number of persons from different groups for the purpose of fair representation or participation in a limited opportunity.  Here, the emphasis is on school admission of new students into tertiary institutions in Nigeria based on quota system.

Concept of quota system in Nigerian education system

Admission of candidates into tertiary institutions in Nigeria is based on quota system. Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu (2018)¹⁵ defined quota system in education system as a represent the number of candidates that should be admitted into the university in one academic year from each state of the federation to remedy imbalance in education between the Northern and the southern part of the country that should be admitted into the university in one academic year from each state. In this paper, quota system in education is to be understood as a practice whereby a number of candidates to be admitted into federal tertiary institutions and federal unity colleges are determined by a policy. Bamisaiye in Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu (2018)¹⁶ outlined how the quota system is applied in the admission of candidates into the first, second and third generations of the federal tertiary institutions. Accordingly, the authors observed that in the then six first generation Universities of Ibadan, Nigeria, Lagos, Ahmadu Bello, Ife (Obafemi Awolowo University) and Benin, this is how it is applied: 

1. 40% on merit from all the states of the Federation 
2. 30% from the catchment areas 
3. 20% for students from educationally less developed states 
4. 10% for others at the discretion of the university 

In the same vein, the authors noted that in the second generation Nigerian Universities of Calabar, Illorin, Jos, Kano, Maiduguri, Port Harcourt and Sokoto, that similar policy prevailed as indicated below:

1. 30% on merit from all the states of the federation 
2. 30% for students from the catchment area.
3. 30% for students from educationally disadvantaged areas.
4. 10% for others at the discretion of the University.

Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu¹⁷ outlined how quota system is applied in the third generation Universities in Nigeria and the Federal Universities of Technology as follows:

1. 20% from the catchment areas 
2. 80% at the discretion of the University. 

Obviously, when one considers the quota system policy applied in admission of students into the third generation universities and the Federal Universities of Technology in Nigeria, admissions based on merit is not given a pride of place among other criteria. Unarguably, educational system that is not based on merit cannot but compromise quality and excellence. Tertiary education should be for best brains and not education for all. If primary and secondary education is made basic education for all Nigerian school age, it should not be so for tertiary education. Tertiary education should be exclusively for those who are outstanding in intellectual endowment and who have demonstrated special interest in scientific research and proffering solutions to the numerous problems threatening our national development and growth. Quota system has thus been so much politicized to the extent that education is seen as a national cake which every section of Nigeria must have her own share – whether qualified or unqualified. This frame of mind and approach to tertiary education leading to the introduction of quota system in admission of students into tertiary institutions in Nigeria is wrongly applied to narrow the educational gap between the various ethnic nationalities that make up the entity called Nigeria. Education is an essential sector of our national development and therefore should not be politicized.

Meaning of Quality Education

Education is a process of transmitting knowledge to a learner. UNESCO (no date)¹⁸ defined education as the process of facilitating learning or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs and habits. According to Wong (2022)¹⁹, education is an essential building block of our society because it provides knowledge, skills and an environment to help people grow — and in turn, they will help society grow. No nation can develop above the standard of education it gives to her citizen. The United Nations (no date)²⁰ understand the supremacy of education for a brighter and prosperous future and is therefore of the consensus that quality education and, not merely education should be a reality for all. In its Sustainable Development Goals, the UN has identified quality education as a major goal to ensure the ‘transformation of the world’ by 2030. By quality education, the UN implies equitable and standard education for all that will promote lifelong learning and the urge to gather knowledge. Inclusivity and equitability are the foundations to be upheld in quality education and not a greater literacy rate. This is a revolutionary approach to understanding education and making it the means of changing the world. Quality education specifically entails issues such as appropriate skills development, gender parity, provision of relevant school infrastructure, equipment, educational materials and resources, scholarships or teaching force²¹.

Concept of Tertiary Education

In Nigeria, education system is divided into three stages. These stages are primary, secondary and tertiary education. This paper focuses on tertiary education. According to the World Bank (no date)²² tertiary education refers to all formal post-secondary education, including public and private universities, colleges, technical training institutes, and vocational schools. Federal

Republic of Nigeria( FRN, 2014)²³ defined tertiary education as “the education given after Post Basic Education in institutions such as Universities, and Inter-University Centres such as the

Nigeria French Language Village, Nigeria Arabic Language, National Institute of Nigerian

Languages, institutions such as Innovation Enterprise Institutions (IEIs), and Colleges Of Education, Monotechnics, Polytechnics, and other specialized institutions such as Colleges of

Agriculture, Schools of Health and Technology and the National Teachers’ Institutes (NTI)”. 

The goals of tertiary education according to Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN 2013)²⁴ include among other things to: 

1. Contribute to national development through high level relevant Manpower training; 
2. Develop and inculcating proper values for the survival of the individual and society; 
3. Develop the intellectual capacity of individuals to understand and appreciate their local and external environments; 
4. Acquire both physical and intellectual skills which will enable individuals to be self reliant and useful members of the society, 
5. Promote and encouraging scholarship and community service. 
6. Forge and cementing national unity; and 
7. Promote national and international understanding and interaction (P.39)

Quota system regime and quality of Nigerian tertiary education: a critical appraisal  

The Nigerian quota system in education has been a matter of discussion among intellectuals and political class. Some argue in favour of quota system while some argue against it. Arguing in favour of quota system, Nwabufo (2021)²⁵ remarked that quota system in Nigeria was conceived to address an inequitable system, but the prevailing “unjust system” betrayed the purpose for which the quota system was ideated and actioned. The application of quota system policy in admission of students into tertiary institutions has negative consequences on the quality of Nigerian tertiary education, and by extension, the Nigerian society at large. Despite its prima facie benefits such as creating inclusive policy that takes care of educationally disadvantaged zones in tertiary education, giving them a higher percentage consideration in admission could be likened to robbing Peter to pay Paul. Olabisi²⁶ observed that quota system as practiced in Nigeria is a corrupt version of it. According to the author, Nigeria operates a quota policy that robs Peter to pay Paul, thus enthroning mediocrity above meritocracy. For instance, he observed that in university admission, 45 per cent of candidates are admitted based on merit, 35 per cent based on catchment area while 20 per cent of the space goes to educationally less developed states. In other words, only 45 per cent of slots in public universities are merit-based in the true sense of the word. Other considerations apart from merit determine those that get the remaining 55 per cent slots.²⁷ One of the effects of this absurdity, the author argues, is the continuous sufferings in the land in spite of its rich human and capital resources, to the extent that the country is now named the world’s poverty capital.

Tertiary education should be a place where the best brains in the country are harnessed and trained so that after their studies in the tertiary institution they occupy and control the most sensitive part sectors such as politics, economy and education. Arguing against quota system regime in Nigeria education sector, Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu²⁸ condemned the practice noting that tertiary education is not a place for basic education where everyone is expected to go. It is a place for specialties. Therefore common sense dictates that whoever thinks of going to the University must demonstrate ability and competence in order to be there. If quota system can be tolerated anywhere, it is not in the University where research and excellence are emphasized.  

Again, quota system can be linked to the prevailing acute and widespread fallen standard of education in Nigeria. Today, for example, some students in tertiary institutions can neither make a simple correct sentence in English Language nor defend their status as undergraduates. The situation is even worse than that. Quota system is responsible for the unprecedented shortfall in the quality of the expected outcome of tertiary education in Nigeria. This is because many of those who in the strict sense of it are not eligible to be admitted into tertiary institutions have flooded tertiary institutions. No thanks to admission into tertiary institutions based on quota system.

Due to the compromised admission policy based on quota system tertiary education has suddenly and sadly become a glorified secondary education. The compromised policy of admission into tertiary institutions has drastically reduced lowered the quality of education. 

The use of quota system in admission of new students into tertiary institutions violates the goals of tertiary education which states that tertiary educational institutions shall pursue the goals of tertiary education through, among other ways, quality student intake ^29. There are case where many first class brains are denied admission in tertiary institutions on account of quota system. Take for example, Bolaji³⁰ observed that the admission guidelines for 2021 wherein, the admission board said “45% of candidates should be admitted into federal institutions based on merit, 35% on catchment basis and 20% from states that are less developed where education is concerned”.³¹

There are still other bottleneck bureaucracies inhibiting brilliant Nigerian students from gaining admission in tertiary institutions based on quota system. The Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) in 2021 said that admissions by the state institutions based on merit quota should be in two layers:

• National Merit Quota – for the first topmost 10% (indigenes and non-indigenes including foreigners); and
• Indigene – Merit Quota – additional 35% allotted to indigenes of the state on merit basis after the first topmost 10% National Merit.³² Corroborating this ugly situation, Prof. Ekuh Abdullahi, former chairman of the admissions committee at the University of Ilorin in Kwara State, confirmed that many qualified candidates are not admitted on account of the quota system. He recalled how a parent whose child scored 340 in the UTME and 70 (out of 100) in the post-UTME test dragged the university before the national assembly for not admitting his son to study medicine which he applied for, despite meeting the requirements.³³ He further noted that the university, in order to distance itself from any foul play during the admission process, submitted their admission list to the national assembly, and they found that there were 40 slots for merit based on quota system formula. Many candidates, including the boy in question, performed excellently. But because he came 41st in the performance ranking and he is not from the catchment area he was not admitted.³⁴

Conclusion

Quota system regime is an enemy of progress in Nigeria – for no nation can develop beyond the education level of her citizens. Quota system is a discriminatory policy against first class brains in Nigeria. It stands against the policy of equal educational opportunities for all Nigerians as contained in the National Policy on Education. Quota system is like robbing Peter to pay Paul, celebrating, rewarding and enthroning mediocrity over excellent. It is also a tyrannical policy that favours the less educationally developed states against a more educationally developed states. If Nigeria must develop and compete with other fast developing countries of the world, it must abrogate quota system in her education sector. Tertiary education should be competitive and for the best brains. If this is not done, many bright students who have potentials of becoming internationally acclaimed intellectual giants kept out of the equation.

Recommendations 

To address the abuse of the quota system in admission of fresh students in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, the authors of this paper recommend the following:

1. Nigerian tertiary education should be upgraded to the rank of education given in internationally acclaimed and sought-for universities 
2. Allocation of at least 70 percent of admission slots to meritorious students, regardless of their state, zone, creed or gender. By so doing, best brains in Nigeria would be given a chance to develop optimally.
3. In line with the above policy of admission of students strictly based on merit, recruitment of teaching and non teaching staff must also be strictly based on merit – irrespective of tribe, religion and any politically motivated reasons.
4. The Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) should publish admission guidelines, criteria, and processes online for accountability.
5. The use of quota system in admission of students into tertiary institutions in Nigeria should be reviewed periodically and adjusted to reflect changing demographics and regional development needs.
6. The ministry of education, through the legislative arm of the government, should grant tertiary institutions more autonomy to determine their admission policies and criteria.
7. Again, the Federal Ministry of Education should establish a committee to monitor and evaluate admission processes, identifying and addressing abuses.
8. The Federal Ministry of Education should conduct regular audits to ensure compliance with admission policies and guidelines.
9. The Federal Ministry of Education should establish clear consequences for institutions or individuals found abusing the quota system.

By implementing these recommendations, Nigeria can minimize the abuse of the quota system, promoting fairness, transparency, and merit-based admissions in tertiary institutions.

References

1. Vanguard (2017). “Full list of all 371 tribes in Nigeria, states where they originate”. Vanguard News. Retrieved 17/10/ 2023.
2. Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu(2018). The Quota Policy in Nigerian Education System: An Emasculation of Meritocracy Among Nigerian Students
3. Olabisi F. (2019). Nigeria @ 59: time to review the quota system.

https://www.thecable.ng/nigeria-59-time-to-review-the-quota-system

• Ibid.
• Ibid.
• Ibid.
• Oxford Advanced American Dictionary (n.d). Definition of quota system https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/american_english/qu ota–system. 
• Obielumani, O.D. (2008). Quota system and educational reforms in Nigeria Journal of Research Dert, 6(1)
• Nduka, O. (1974). “Education and the Realization of Social Justice and Human Rights in Nigeria, in Haavelsurd, M. (Ed) Education for Peace:

Reflection and Action, U.K: University of Keele. 

1. Akani, C. (1996). Political Economy of Secret Cultism in Nigerian Universities, Port Harcourt: Christian Publishers. 
2. Oduwaiye, O.B. (2011). Access and Equity in Nigerian Universities:

Challenges and Way Forward. Advances in Management, 8(1) 60-67.

1. Enemuo, P.C. (2004). Academic freedom and autonomy: A Condition Precedent for Education Accountability. Nigeria Journal of Educational Philosophy.11(2).
2. Oxford Dictionary (n.d). Definition of quota system.

https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/quota-system

1. Kudzai, M. (2019). Is the university quota system discriminatory?

https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=201912030452494 23

1. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014) National policy on education (6^th Edition). Lagos: Education Review and Development Council (NERDC)

Press.                        

1. World Bank, Tertiary Education Overview

https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation

1. Ibid.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Wong C. (2022). What Is Quality Education and How to Use It

https://articles.noodlefactory.ai/what-is-quality-education-and-how-to-use-it

• Unesco (no date).  https://en.unesco.org/themes/education/sdgs/material/04#:~:text=Quality%2 0education%20specifically%20entails%20issues,resources%2C%20scholars hips%20or%20teaching%20force.
• Bolaji, A. (2022). Poor guidance, quota system keep good candidates out of higher education https://www.universityworldnews.com/postmobile.php?story=20220626213135639
• Olabisi F. (2019). Nigeria @ 59: time to review the quota system.

https://www.thecable.ng/nigeria-59-time-to-review-the-quota-system

• Ibid.
• Okoh, Ebeigbe and Egwuelu(2018). Op. Cit
• Ibid.
• Bolaji, A. (2022). Op. Cit
• Ibid.
• Ibid.
• Ibid.
• Op.Cit. 

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Abstract

Nigeria, a land that is made up of people with diverse culture, religion and language. These challenges are responsible for the high level of under –development, economic stagnation, hatred, insecurity and high poverty rate. The issue of national integration as a measure to enhance unity of purpose, ideology and value system rests majorly on education. Education is expected to play a major role to produce transformed citizens and provide answers to disunity, cultural and religious divisions in Nigeria. This paper therefore focused on education and national integration for growth and development, with the review of the concept of education and national integration, Nigeria’s philosophy of education and objectives, role of education in National integration and challenges to using education for national integration. The study concluded that national integration is essential for national unity and progress. The researcher therefore suggested the following among others as the way forward: the government both federal and state should help our education system in order to promote national integration, school curriculum should be reviewed periodically to meet daily trends and government should have a regulatory body that monitors policy implementation in schools.   

Introduction  

At the time of Nigeria’s independence in 1960, there was much excitement and expectation in the land as a result of a new dawn. Our leaders at the time, who worked so hard for our freedom, had in mind, the picture of a great nation, united people from different socio-cultural background, as well as a progressive nation. Unfortunately, these have not been the case. Today in Nigeria, things have gone really wrong. The nation is more divided than ever and serious tension abounds, owing mainly to leadership failures.

The rate of social vices has escalated. There are more ethnic colorations in the scheme of things in the country; be it in politics, work, school, and so on. There are high rate of kidnapping, killings, cultism, nepotism, banditry, corruption, ethnic violence, money laundering, etc (Amaele, 2015). Our strength of unity is currently undergoing acid test. Politics has almost killed Nigeria. The hope of our nation presently lies in her education as an instrument that can aid true national integration.

Concept of Education

Education as a concept is construed differently by scholars who attempt to define it from their own point of views. Education implies a process of acquiring knowledge and the theory of teaching and learning. Peters (1979) defined education as a process of socialization, enculturation and transmission of what is worthwhile to those who are committed to it; be it children or adults. This shows that those who go through education want to improve themselves. Okafor in Oputa (2010) sees education as a process of acculturation through which the individual is helped to attain the development of his potentials and their maximum activation when necessary according to right reason and to achieve his perfect self-fulfillment. Education is also considered as a deliberate, systematic and sustained effort to transmit, evoke or acquire knowledge, values, attitudes and skills.  It is the art of making available to each generation, the organized knowledge of the past. Education is a life long project; which starts from one’s birth and ends at one’s death.

Any education that cannot promote a change in an individual’s life or society is not an education. Education is expected to produce positive changes both in people’s lives and society in general. As Zik observed, education should impart in individuals both academic and practical skills with which they can control their destinies. Also, education helps one to learn of one’s past, present, and prepares one for the future. In the process, experiences are garnered, bad habits dropped, and a new way of viewing things emerges (Osaat & Oputa, 2018).

Furthermore, education should build in individuals the spirit of critical thinking which can be applied in handling issues in the society. Critical thinking encompasses the use of cognitive skills for interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation and self regulation. It is easier for a society to experience more progress, enlargement and integration when its citizens apply regularly ‘critical thinking’ in what they do.

National Integration

Integration means the bringing together of many different parts so that they can function as a whole. It is seen by the Sociology Guide (2019) as a process of developing a society in which all the social groups share the socio-economic and cultural life. This could imply having and enjoying the societal wealth together. The Wikipedia (2019) also defines social integration as the process during which newcomers or minorities are incorporated into the social structure of the host society. In this respect, new persons are free to migrate into an existing society and enjoy their socio-economic and cultural values together. This concept is seen as national integration when a nation is involved.

Hence, national integration is that feeling of togetherness or oneness towards ones’ own country irrespective of people’s individual differences with regard to religion, tribe, region, race, or culture. Quora (2019) adds that national integration is not only about national spirit but involves a deep feeling that brings peoples from all areas, dialects and beliefs together in a common endeavour. This attitude helps individuals to work together and build systems that enhance the prosperity of a nation and its people.

National integration further implies the avoidance of divisive movements or activities/ practices that would disrupt a nation’s harmony and prosperity. Wanagho (2011) equates it with oneness. He believes that national integration helps in bringing together different ethnic groups to have a single voice for the collective development and growth of a region, and by extension, the nation, Nigeria. Such development will be seen in a better society where true democratic practice as in good governance, respect for rule of law, respect for people’s rights, accountability and freedom of speech as well as collective responsibilities is experienced or is in place (Bebebiafiai, 2015). It also includes the provision of social amenities like good roads, electricity, pipe borne water, and other infrastructure as well as creation of jobs for the unemployed.

National integration indices in any society therefore include:

• Rights of every citizens to vote and be voted for.
• Health facilities and other social amenities for all.
• Job opportunities/ appointments open for all.
• Access to any school of one’s choice.
• Good governance
• Rule of law
• Freedom of worship, etc.

National integration thus, becomes the panacea for national segregation, oppression and suppression. Nigeria currently needs to build on her national integration due to dissenting voices. Many are crying of neglect of their areas and intentional societal injustice by ruling political class. Political positions are now based on the party one belongs (Nwaokugha, 2018). Projects are deliberately abandoned in states due to political affiliations. As example is the eat-west road in Port Harcourt area of Rivers State which is a sorry sight and the masses made to suffer. Groups like ‘Biafra’ ‘IPOB’, Niger Delta Militants’, ‘Boko Haram’, ‘Revolution Save Nigeria’ among others have emerged with one claim or the other inflicting pains on the citizens of the country.

The masses are suffering due to hardship in the land. There are little or no jobs even for Ph.D holders how much less first degree holders. This is one of the reasons people enter into cults with the erroneous notion of making it, some join politics with the mind of enriching themselves to the detriment of others, some are now in yahoo business, direct robbery or prostitution among others just to survive.

Worst is the ethnic and religious divide where some claim to come from a certain part of the country or belong to one religion or the other. This is why there has to be an awakening by our leaders to stop this madness. It is suggested that education through values orientation should be used in this direction. Values education is the planned educational action targeted at the development of appropriate attitudes, values, emotions and behavior patterns of the learners (Venkataiah, 2007). It has a wide meaning and encompasses all aspects of personality development intellectual, social, moral, aesthetic and spiritual. It is an approach to inculcate broad mindedness, tolerance and proper social and emotional qualities. Applied in its broad sense, values education aims at training the young in the entire realm of values-physical, emotional, intellectual, imaginative, aesthetic, democratic, scientific, social, moral and spiritual (Emenu, 2015). These can be pursued by any individual irrespective of his practice of any religion or no religion at all.

Nigeria’s National Philosophy and Goals

According to Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013), the overall philosophy of Nigeria is to:

1. Live in unity and harmony as one indivisible, indissoluble, democratic and sovereign nation founded on the principles of freedom, equality and justice;
2. Promote inter=African solidarity and world peace through understating.

Consequently, the five main goals of Nigeria Philosophy; which has been accepted as the fulcrum for the National Policy on Education are:

1. A free and democratic society.
2. A just and egalitarian society.
3. A united, strong and self-reliant nation.
4. A great and dynamic economy.
5. A land of bright and full opportunities for her citizens.

The first goal of Nigeria’s philosophy talks about a free and democratic society. Every citizen in Nigeria has the right of freedom since Nigeria is no more under colonialization. Also, Nigeria is one of the democratic nations in the whole world. This means that just as the individuals have the right of freedom, we as a nation also have the right to democracy and should enjoy its benefits. For instance, we should be able to choose who would rule us without violence. The rights of citizens in social welfare including education should not be denied them.

The second goal of our nation’s philosophy talks about a just and egalitarian society. Nigeria should be able to practice true justice and create an enabling environment for oneness. There should be no inequality or discrimination amongst us.

The third national goal talks about a united, strong and self-reliant nation, the spirit of unity should dwell amongst us; the cooperative spirit should help us make our nation what we want it to be.

The fourth national goal is on a great and dynamic economy. The nation is blessed with rich mineral resources such as oil, tin, coal; and agricultural products like cocoa, rice, cassava, etc. which if properly channeled can really give us a dynamic economy. This is our desire. And the fifth national goal tells of a land full of bright and equal opportunity for her citizens. All Nigerians have the right to benefit from all the opportunities God has given us such as education and wealth.

Nigeria’s Philosophy of Education and Objectives

Nigeria’s Philosophy of Education is spelt in four areas which are:

1. Education is an instrument for national development; to this end, the formulation of ideas, their integration for national development, and the interaction of persons and ideas are all aspects of education;
2. Education fosters the worth and development of the individual, for each individual’s sake, and for the general development of the society.
3. Every Nigeria child shall have a right to equal educational opportunities irrespective of any real or imagined disabilities each according to his or her ability.
4. There is need for functional education for the promotion of a progressive, united Nigeria; to this end, school programmes need to be relevant, practical and comprehensive; while interest and ability should determine the individual’s direction in education.

Therefore, the philosophy of education in Nigeria is spelt in these objectives:

1. To inculcate national consciousness and unity.
2. To inculcate right type of values and attitudes for the survival of the individual and the Nigerian society.
3. The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around.
4. The acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities, and competences – both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live in and contribute to the development of his society.

Objective number one of Nigeria’s Philosophy of education is to inculcate national consciousness and unity among Nigerians. The government over the years has undertaken different steps in achieving the above. Examples of such steps include the national anthem which should be recited with meaning, our national flag, promotion of three major Nigerian languages – Hausa, Yoruba and Igbo nationwide, introducing National Youth Service Corpse Scheme where young graduates are expected to undergo National Service for a year in different areas of the country, etcetera.

Objective two talks about right type of values which include belief in God, respect for one another, respect for industriousness, love for people among others. These should be reflected in our way of life.

The third objective is about training the mind in the understanding of the world around. School graduates are expected to be well equipped through their programme so that they can compete anywhere and make useful contributions wherever and make useful contributions wherever they find themselves.

Objective number four is the acquisition of right skills, abilities and competences –both mental and physical. These among others are the things education should ensure. Our education system should be such that our students are adequately equipped with skills before they graduate. Such skills and abilities are needed in today’s challenging world.

Sadly, it appears these objectives are not functioning. The solution nevertheless, lies in our school. It depends on the idea of education we have i.e what our students are being taught.

Role of Education in National Integration

First, education has aims. Some of them are:

• Moral and spiritual development of persons.
• Intellectual training/development of person.
• Transmission of cultural values.
• Knowledge about the environment and anything relating to human endeavour.
• Acquisition of various skills for purposeful living.
• Development of worthwhile attitudes, values and behaviours.
• Developing the rational mind of man.
• Inter-personal and human relationship (Enoch, 2009).

Second, education has some functions which include:

• Maintenance of social solidarity by developing in children a sense of belonging to the society with a commitment to its way of life as they understand it.
• Inculcation of values and standards of the society.
• Development of knowledge. The provision of literacy and numeracy and specialized training for occupational competence leading to personal and societal fulfillment.
• Transmission of knowledge (worthwhile knowledge) which comprises the social heritage.
• The preservation and transmission of cultural values from one generation to another.
• Expansion of student’s intellectual ability.
• Encouraging democratic participation through teaching verbal skills and the development of individual’s ability for rational thinking.
• The production of patriotic citizens through lessons by illustrating the nation’s greatness and glory.
• Education is an agent of upward mobility in the society.
• Education is also an agent of socio-cultural change.

Thirdly, education should teach people their rights which are fundamental to them. Such fundamental human rights according to Omoregbe (1993) are:

1. The right to exist or the right to live;
2. The right to bodily integrity;
3. The right to freedom, i.e. self-determination;
4. The right to self-expression;
5. The right to own property within certain limits;
6. The right to marry and have children;
7. The right to education;
8. The right to a just wage for one’s labour;
9. The right to be treated with justice;
10. The right to good name;
11. The right to belong to any religion, i.e. the right to freedom of worship; and
12. The right to form any society or organization if such a society or organization does not constitute a threat to public peace and security and does not infringe on the rights of other.

Also, education should promote:

1. Respect for persons.
2. True democratic principles like justice and fairness, rule of law, accountability, freedom of speech, etc.
3. Respect for people’s way of worship.
4. Unity and oneness
5. Peace and liberty
6. Honesty and hardwork
7. Creativity
8. Cultural values

In addition, education should discourage division, violence, cultism, kidnapping, among others. All these evil vices should stop.

Challenges to using education for national integration

Such challenges include:

1. Kind of education offered: A major challenge Nigerian education faces presently is the kind of education it offers. In other words, the quality of our education compared to other countries. Nigerian universities for instance were built by the federal government to seek the truth through the development of knowledge and manpower. They are also being funded by the government to help in the scientific and technological advancement of the society as well as in its material and cultural development. However, have these objectives been achieved? What kind of knowledge do we impact on our students? Are the rich cultural values Nigeria boosts of such as love, tolerance, and respect still there? Why do we still have cases of cultism, kidnapping, violence, etc amongst us? Are our students still proud of their root? Do we have good research centres in our universities which will help in solving our social, cultural and political problems? Do we have a national ideology which our philosophy of education is based on? With the present system in Nigeria education, can we go anywhere? What is the hope of the average Nigeria student? Notable scholars like Okoli (2011) among others have frowned at the type of education Nigeria currently offers and have called for a drastic change.

• Limited funding: The issue of funding has been greatly discussed among educationists and scholars in general. Funding entails financial backing/support to schools (in this context) by the government. The Federal Government funds federal institutions while each state government funds her own State educational institutions. Funding also means that there is money for research and teaching, development of physical structure, staff salaries, equipment-laboratories and libraries, conductive classrooms for lectures, steady power supply, and working ICT facilities (Aminigo & Osaat, 2015).

A lot of resources is required to establish and run schools of international repute these days. Unfortunately, it does appear our schools are presently underfunded; making many to frown. Statistics shows that the federal government has been spending only 1.6 percent of the country’s yearly Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on public university education in the last 18 years. Also, only approximately 10% of total annual budget has been going to education for the past 17 years. Some have also questioned the rationale behind much money going to Federal government, State and Local government and few spent on education. For instance, in the 2017 Nigeria budget proposals sent to the National Assembly by Mr. President, N7.3 trillion was earmarked out of which only N398.01 billion was kept for education recurrent expenditure (Opejobi, 2016). This falls short of UNESCO 26% budget recommendation for developing countries such as Ghana (31%), Cote d’Ivoire (31%), South Africa (25.6%), Kenya (23%) among others.

There is the general belief that the federal government is not funding our universities enough. Where schools are not properly funded, it could lead to dearth of school infrastructure and serious academic implications. Also, one may be tempted to ask if the exact amount from the budget allocation for education released by government is actually spent by school authorities judiciously in the end.

However, the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU, 2000) believes that adequate funding of universities will lead to.

1. Equipping of laboratories, building libraries, providing academic and social conditions that are conducive to living and learning in the university campuses;
2. Providing a firm foundation for the restoration of the past glory of Nigeria universities;
3. Attracting back to Nigeria most academics that left the universities out of dissatisfaction with the conditions of service and frustration about the poverty of academic facilities in Nigeria;
4. Retraining academics already in the system and also encouraging the best graduates to join the academic (teaching) profession;
5. Placing the universities in a good position to seriously compete with other universities in the world in the race for the production of knowledge for development and freedom. 
6. Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Education today has undergone rapid transformation globally due to the help of modern technologies. These innovative technologies apply technological tools, devices, softwares and hardwares, teaching methods among others in bringing practical solutions to teaching and learning problems. ICT has made teaching and learning look simple. Both the teacher and student can now apply ICT in their activities making education more interesting. It is sad however, that the concept of ICT in Nigeria is still new or has not been fully utilized. Majority of the teaching staff and students in Nigeria schools are still grasping with ICT and its related application due to insufficient computer knowledge and applications. Hence, these ones are denied the enormous benefits emanating from ICT. How can students be exposed to ICT world if they are not taught or properly guided about it. Some schools do not have ICT facilities. Some that have do not have the expertise that can handle it, allowing those facilities to rot. For some who have the resource personnel, their knowledge of it is limited. Only few schools can boast of sound ICT experts.

The non-teaching staff who run day-to-day administration of the school are not excluded. The world today has been taken over by technology and every academic institution be it primary school, secondary school, or the university should key into the use of ICT. Whether we like it or not, everyone in today’s world should imbibe the virtues of ICT. This view is corroborated by Inyang and Ijomah (2015) in their respective work on Information and Communication Technology.

• Admission/Access to schools: Gaining admission into Nigeria universities for instance, is not easy especially with the nation’s large population compared with admission rate owning to limited universities and infrastructure. So many people sit for Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) examination and at the end of the day are disappointed. Among these are those who have sat for years. Even when some candidates make the required scores, it is still a problem gaining admission. The university system appears to be making things difficult either in terms of cut-off points, quota system, aptitude test, admission fees, and so on. Candidates seeking admission into universities since year 200 have soared compared to those eventually accepted. In 2011/2012 a total of 1, 493, 604 people sat for JAMB with only 400,000 admitted, leaving the remaining over 1 million persons dejected. This is a picture of what happens every year. Interestingly, some students who are admitted are given a completely different course at the end of the day. Eventually, such students may begin to struggle with the courses available and when they manage to graduate, are useless in the society. This is a serious issue which must be tackled quickly in our university system.
• Cost of education: Education in Nigeria is becoming very expensive everyday almost measuring with that of private universities in the country. It now takes the privileged few and the brave to attend public schools in Nigeria. School fees are too exorbitant. You can imagine an individual paying over N130,000 as school fees per section the average Nigerian workers? We have not even considered other financial obligations such as textbooks, library and hostel fees, feeding, etc. Some may attribute this trend to poor government funding but is the best we can say? This issue needs to be seriously addressed.

Solution

The following solutions are recommended:

1. The government (federal and state) should help our education system in order to promote national integration.
2. School curriculum should be reviewed periodically to meet daily trends.
3. School curriculum should inculcate true national values that promote integration.
4. Government should have a regulatory body that monitors policy implementation schools.
5. Government should have a regulatory body that monitors policy implementation in schools.
6. Students should learn to respect one another and see others as they see themselves. They should be taught to love their country.

Conclusion

National integration is very important for national unity and progress. No nation can excel if the citizens do not have one mind. Where people are divided, the nation suffers. Also, an enabling environment is needed for the advancement of a people. Thus, when such environment is provided, peace, security, progress and development are assured. It is the belief of these writers that this enabling environment/atmosphere as encapsulated in national integration can be achieved using the means of education.

References

Amaele, S. (2015). Moral and religious values in Nigerian Education: Issues, problems and prospects. Port Harcourt: Harey. Publications Coy.

Aminigo, I.M. & Osaat, S.D. (2015). Celebrating our teacher and mentor at 70: Essays in honour of Professor Joseph Donatus Okoh. Port Harcourt: C’Fine publishers.

Bebebiafiai, I. A. (2015). Achieving democratic principle through practice of academic freedom in Nigeria universities. In I. M. Aminigo & S. D. Osaat (2015). Celebrating our teacher and mentor at 70: Essay in honour of Professor Joseph Donatus Okoh. Port Harcourt: C’Fine Publishers.

Emenus, C.A. (2015). Values education: The greatest national need. In I. M. Aminigo & Osaat (eds) Celebrating at teacher and mentor @70: Essays in honour of Prof. Joseph Donatus Okoh. Port Harcourt: C’Fine Publishers.

Enoh, A. O. (2009). Education and leadership in Nigeria. Book of Reading. Lagos: Philosophy of Education Association of Nigeria.

Inyang, M. & Ijoma, M. (2015). ICT and research methodology. Unpublished work. University of Port Harcourt.

Okoli, N.J. (2011). History of education. An overview. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Omoregbe, J. (1993). Ethics

Opejobi, S. (2016). 2017 budget presentation: Full text of President Buhari’s speech. Daily Post Nigeria. Retrieved December 24, 2016.

Opejobi, S. (2010). The quality of university education in Nigeria is declining: Factors responsible. University of Port Harcourt. Unpublished work.

Osaat, S. D. & Oputa, C. C. (2018). A philosophical foundation of education for political stability in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 38^th Annual Conference of the Philosophers of Education Association of Nigeria.

Peters, R. S. (1979). The concept of education. London and Henley: Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited.

Quora (2019). What is national integration? www.quora.com

Sociology Guide (2019). Integration. www.sociologygudie.com.

Venkataiah, N. (2007). Value education. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.

Wanagho, J. M. (2011). Democracy and education in Nigeria. Unpublished work: University of Port Harcourt. Wikipedia (2019). National integration. www.wikipedia.org.

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Abstract

In an ever changing Nigeria, It can be pointed out, that besides academic freedom and administrative autonomy, there is also the question of universities’ financial freedom where the abolishing of tuition fees in 1975 by the federal military government marked a significant loss of revenue for education. While the government, on the one hand, wants the universities to find alternative funding sources and become financially autonomous the universities through their union, on the other hand, argued that the government has the resources to finance the universities and should continue to take full responsibility. The paper addresses the position of the law relating to the issue of University autonomy in Nigeria. The statutes establishing Nigerian universities confer on them three fundamental forms of institutional autonomy as implied from the IAU policy statement above. These are namely: (1) academic autonomy/freedom, (2) administrative autonomy and (3) financial autonomy. These three aspects of autonomy are the basis upon which disputes occur between ASUU and Federal Government and it is within these frameworks that the paper examined the conceptual issues surrounding financial autonomy in Nigerian federal universities. It also discovered that the principle of financial autonomy more especially as it relates to Nigerian universities is grossly inadequate and vague within the Nigerian legal system. Hence it also recommends that the universities should be given the authority to generate fund internally in addition to the grants given by the government and the power to disburse the funds so generated. Government and critical stakeholders should review university autonomy laws to appropriately address funding, including staff remuneration, institutional governance, as well as the issue of internally generated revenue

Keywords: Financial Autonomy, Education, National Development and Tertiary

Introduction

There have been intensive debates between ASUU and the Federal Government on the question of autonomy and academic freedom since 1978 till date. In general ASUU argues that the Government’s undue interference in matters concerning the day to day administration of the institutions inhibits progress and distorts effective decision making (Onyeonoru, 2008). Such interventions include attempts to control the appointment and removal of academic staff (including Vice Chancellors), the imposition of sole administrators during the military era, the admission of students, the prescription of teaching curriculum and research content, the restriction of certain publications and the allocation of recurrent income (Ekundayo and Adedokun, 2009). ASUU on the other hands stated that political ideologies and interests interfere with the smooth running of the University system. Financial Autonomy is the “breath” and “life” of tertiary education institutions because it ensures sourcing for finance for effective academic development. It also allows training institutions to break free from the “asking and giving” practice as well as rigid, burdensome and bureaucratic regulations on management, training, enrollment, finance, and scientific research. Among the main contents as mentioned above, financial autonomy is considered an important prerequisite which is capable of perfecting all other autonomy contents such as personnel and academic autonomy.

In Nigeria, for example, a University Autonomy Bill was passed by the National Assembly in 2004, which aimed at making new and better provisions for the autonomy of universities. University autonomy simply means self-determination and self-governance or self-rule. It refers to the right of the universities to determine the manner in, or the ground rules by which they are governed and their capacity to control their own affairs and shape their own destiny, free from external interference or control. In an Act to Amend the University (Miscellaneous provisions) Act and to make new and better provisions for the autonomy of universities and other related matters”, Section 2.3, page 2, describes university autonomy simply as the capacity of the university to govern itself.

University autonomy is understood as the creation of a mechanism for universities, within the framework of law, to take the initiative in organizing the implementation and decision-making of academic content, organizational structure and personnel, and finance and; specifically: Regarding finance, it is autonomy and self-responsibility for the management of financial revenue and expenditure, assets, investment in construction of facilities, procurement of equipment, and set-up and use of funds of the university. The question steering Nigerian tertiary institutions at the face “is financial autonomy the solution?”.The effective running of universities demands the availability of funds, human and material resources. Over time, however, the Nigerian university system has been crying out over inadequate funding for the smooth operation of the system, thus blaming the government for the scarcity of funds for public universities. The government, on the other hand, complains of a lack of resources; repeatedly saying it (government) alone cannot fund education in the country and harp on the importance of exploiting other means of funding education. The university workers, in reaction to poor funding, unpaid allowances and dilapidated facilities, among others, always resort to strike actions, which cause the closure of universities for long periods of time, thereby affecting students’ learning.

The paper addresses the position of the law relating to the issue of University autonomy in Nigeria. The statutes establishing Nigerian universities confer on them three fundamental forms of institutional autonomy as implied from the IAU policy statement above. These are namely: (1) academic autonomy/freedom, (2) administrative autonomy and (3) financial autonomy. These three aspects of autonomy are the basis upon which disputes occur between ASUU and Federal Government and it is within these frameworks that the paper is set to examine the conceptual issues surrounding financial autonomy in Nigerian federal universities.

Financial autonomy, Nature and the issues involved

The concept of financial autonomy is the ability of a person to make decisions related to their income, expenses and their level of indebtedness. To do so, it must be autonomous, from an economic point of view. Therefore, the researchers can say that any decision about everything that affects our economy is referred as financial autonomy that is why tertiary education institutions are aiming to be by far autonomous regarding rising demand for higher education in recent years. Financial autonomy is one of the momentous determinants in accordance with tuition fee and loans. Managing resources independently would by far  allow universities to reach their strategic aims more successfully.

Many criteria are allowed for considering financial autonomy of university and among these criteria determination of tuition fee freely by a university or by an external authority is an important decision to finance public higher education. While tuition fee approach derives from financing Higher Education by public resources, would be the authority to decide the amount of it between upper and lower limits settled on by the external authority. Further to that, loan opportunities to pay the fees should be taken into account for especially poor-background students which affect the attendance level. These loan opportunities may be provided either by the government or private sector.

From the view above, Bare (2010) coined financial autonomy to refers to universities which exercise independent control over its day to day operations of funds from government or internally generated revenue. Autonomy is generally associated with universities and implies that the sponsors (federal or state) does not have control over or dictates in matters of universities especially in its fund’s management. Over the years, the university system enjoyed relative measures of financial autonomy as they were left to function with zero interference from both the federal and states government. The universities were also encouraged to organize their own entrance examinations and selection of candidates for admissions without government interference or by its agencies while members of the governing council were selected from those who have idea of higher education administration. Financial autonomy is determined by several parameters: the duration of the state funding cycle (the less the state or the controlling authority determines the amount of funding, the more freedom the university has in shaping its budget, and, accordingly, the more long-term strategy can be determined for itself), the type of public funding the opportunity independently determine the cost items, the ability to save profits, ownership of the building, the ability to set the amount of tuition fees.

In the same vein, Etuk, (2022), is of the view that the expansion of the financial autonomy of universities suggests a change in the mechanism of interaction between the state and higher education institutions and becomes especially relevant in a situation where most European countries have recognized higher education as one of the most expensive social services, and the growth rates of total expenditures on education far outpaced the growth rate of government revenues. There is a gradual transformation of universities into economically independent structures, which are managed as large corporations and are responsible for the results of its financial activities to the state.

To assess financial autonomy further, the researchers logically analyses necessary conditions such as the duration of the public funding cycle; type of public financing; the opportunity to attract external funds on the terms of return; the opportunity to receive and distribute profits; possibility to own a building; tuition fees at the educational and qualification level of the bachelor and master, postgraduate and doctoral programmes for students; tuition fees at the educational and qualification levels of the bachelor and master, postgraduate and doctoral programmes for students. Universities financial autonomy does not mean their full independence from the state: for example, in most Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, the state funds up to 70 % of all university budgets, which is the main lever of state influence on the processes of transformation at universities and the main instrument for achieving positive results in the educational sphere. At the same time, the schemes of financing higher education differ in the degree of coverage by the state of the cost of training in universities, the mechanism of selection of potential students, the level of autonomy of the university in determining the cost of education.

Consequently,Okoye, (2010) maintained that financial autonomy in public universities was relatively enjoyed by the first and second generation of universities established in the middle of 1940s and between 1960 and 1970s respectively. From this generation of universities, the University College of Ibadan established in 1948 and later University of Ibadan was adequately funded in all aspects of teaching and research by both the Nigerian and British government between 1948 and 1954 respectively. The Federal Government’s capital expenditure on the University College Ibadan was over £36 million and the total recurrent expenditure over the same period amounted to £ 112.269 (NUC, 2003). The first and the second generation of universities performed well and were adequately funded by the government while the federal Government released subvention to the universities regularly, with scholarships and bursaries made available to indigent students.

Okebukola (2002) submitted that there was no substantial difference between the amount requested by the universities and the amount received from the government. He opined that there were years in which the amount received was slightly higher than the amount requested for. Ejiogu (1986) affirmed that the annual Federal Grants to the first five universities in the country at that time rose from £2.56 million in 1963/1964 respectively to £5.9 million in 1968/1689. However, Akintoye (2008) noted that in the year 1975, the Federal government established seven more universities and also took over the existing four states universities. He noted that this announcement made the total number of universities under the federal governments control to be thirteen (13) universities and according to Ayo-Sobowale and Akinyemi (2011), the 1975 period marked the beginning of the problem of university funding in Nigeria. Aina (2007) noted that after the 1975/1976 session, Amadu Bello University (ABU) for the first time, recorded shot fall of 20 percent in the amount requested. He emphasized that resources are allocated because they are limited in supply relative to the need claims, thus, funds allocated to public universities in Nigeria, represents a cost of the economy because there was a fierce competition and politics in every setting and strata of university system to attract a lion share, According to Obasi & Asodike (2007) , the bulk of government allocation which represent (90%) to education is spent in recurrent expenditure as dictated by the government through its monitory agencies, However, Micaiah (2014) [13] submitted that the remaining (10%) is shared among educational services and healthcare facilities which is under the direct control of the various universities. Adeniyi (2008), noted that the subvention received by the universities from the Federal Government is inadequate in meeting their financial demands. This is because the universities are affected by the unstable economic conditions as well as other government policies on the management of funds allocated to the universities system, hence the need for strategies for effective fund management. Ayo-Sobowale & Akinyemi (2011) noted that there is need for radical changes in universities system and its administration, especially in the areas of funding since education is an instrument for enhancing socio-economic development and national viability. It therefore becomes necessary to adopt strategies for effective fund management of funds allocated to the public universities.

Funding: Annual Budgetary Allocation to Education in Nigeria (2014-2023)

Data and Analysis of the Federal Government of Nigeria’s Budgetary Allocation to Education between 2015 and 2022,” pegged the federal government’s budgetary allocation to education at 5.39 percent, accounting for N923.79 billion out of the total budget of N17.13 trillion. This revealed that the 5.39 percent was a 50 percent reduction from the 10.79 percent allocated to education in 2015. “The Federal Government’s 2022 budgetary allocation to education is 5.39 percent, which is N923.79 billion out of the total budget of N17.13 trillion. This is being expended on personnel (N662.7 billion), overheads (N38.8 billion), and capital expenditure (N222.2 billion). The 5.39 percent allocation is not only a minuscule 0.29 percent increase from the 2021 budget in which 5.68 percent was allocated to the sector; it is the lowest percentage allocation to education by the Federal Government in the last ten years. Further considering that the 5.39 percent is a 50 percent reduction from the 10.79 percent allocated to education in 2015, a comparative estimate of the Naira value of these percentages, when subjected to dollar exchange, shows only a slight difference between the 2015 allocation and that of 2022.

Nigerian Universities education funding is still below international best practices as recommended by United Nation Economic Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) of 26%. The establishment of universities was not just to facilitate access but it was a response to the country’s desire to be integrated into the modern knowledge economy. This development increased enrollment, but without adequate planning, there has been a downward trend in the funding of universities in the country. For example, the Nigerian Government controls universities through the National Universities Commission which among others allocates funds to universities where the then Nigeria’s President, Muhammadu Buhari approved the 2023 financial disbursement to publicly tertiary institutions, Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education (CoE), in Nigeria in line with Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) approved guidelines the sum of N320,345,040, 835. (Three hundred and twenty billion, three hundred & forty-five million. Forty thousand, eight hundred & thirty-five Naira only). Based on this, each university will receive, for the Year 2023 intervention cycle, the total sum of  N1,154,732,133.00.

The fund comprises N954, 732,123.00 as annual direct disbursement and N200 million as zonal intervention. Similarly, each Polytechnic shall get N699,344,867.00 comprising of N569,344,807.00 as annual direct disbursement and N130million as zonal intervention, while each College of education receives N800,862,602 comprising of N670,862,602.00 as annual direct disbursement and N130million as zonal intervention as the funds represent the highest disbursement to each beneficiary institution, since the inception of the Fund. Between 2015 to date (8 years), the total sum of N1,702trillion has been disbursed as Education tax collection to public universities, polytechnics and colleges of education compared to a total sum of N1.249trillion disbursed from the inception of the Fund in 1993 up to 2014 (21 years). This resulted in an increase in education tax from 2.0% to 2.5% in the year 2021. In 2022, the then President approved the sum of 189billion Naira for the public Higher Institutions which represented 80percent. Against the backdrop of the Academic Staff Union of Universities, ASUU, strike, the educational sector received its lowest budgetary allocation in 2023.

For example, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) benchmark of four to six percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or 15 to 20 percent of public expenditure. Considering that education is on the concurrent list in the Nigerian Constitution, to ascertain the percentage of total public expenditure on education in Nigeria, different sources of funds must be put into consideration, such as budget allocations by States and the Federal Government, and the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund), among others. This data, however, only shows the Federal Government’s allocation to education as this show the negative cascading effects of the low budgetary allocation to education by the federal government. The need for better funding of FG owned public universities is one of the many issues causing the seemingly endless strike actions by the Academic Staff Union of Universities, ASUU. an increase in education budgeting will mean that more schooling population across Nigeria can access free, safe, and quality education, while increasing the chances for uptake of secondary and tertiary education. Governments’ investment in education is not only in fulfillment of its obligation to fulfill the right to education, it is strategic, as investing in education is directly linked to, among others, reduction in poverty and crimes, as well as improvements in Nigeria’s economic potential and capacity for national development.

According to Ostapenko (2023), though the world has witnessed dramatic changes in the last decades of the 20th and 21^st centuries in which Nigeria Universities are not excluded in terms of poor funding. These changes are a response to a worldwide phenomenon of rising cost of university education in excess of the corresponding rates of increase of availability revenues. In order to cope with government funding reduction, universities worldwide now generate additional sources of fund through strategies.

From educational perspective, underfunding is seen as a phenomenon deeply rooted in the social, economic and political structure of the society. As a result, the educational system which serves as important element in the structure is not entirely independent but it is also subjected to the influence of other elements within the structure and in particular, the economic system which provides the nexus on which other element in the social system revolve.

However, funding theory which was advocated by J.S Mills in 1945 and popularized by Okebukola (2002) noted that funds allocated to organisation depends on the demand and supply of labour which is expressed between population and capital, while the population refers to the working class/force and the capital refers to circulating or recurrent expenditure for the expansion of an organization. The fund theory equally argues on the quantity of the working capital and people who are employed in an organisation. According to Adeniyi (2008), fund theory refers to the amount of capital that an employer of labour provides against unforeseen circumstance.

From the above fund theory, universities are at liberty to operate within the frame work of working capital considering the staff strengths of the university since the university system is an organisation operating within the status quo. Funds allocated to public universities should be able to solve the problems facing such university considering capital and recurrent expenditure. According to Okebukola (2002), subvention either from federal or state governments should be directly spent considering the number of staff and the volume of recurrent expenditure in yearly basis. Judging from the present Nigeria economy, subventions either from federal or state government has some procedures which serves as bottleneck and sometime reduces the budgeted amount, thus, hinder smooth operation for effective management of public Universities. Consequently, challenges for effective management of public universities in Nigeria according to the researchers are caused by the following:

1. The deficiencies of university administrators: university’s administrators both at Federal and State level are appointed on party loyalty and not minding the necessary training required managing such positions and as such the university funds are not managed in the interest of the university but for personal gain.
2. Lack of government full commitment: Government either at Federal or State level no longer bear full financial support of her university education. Consequently, there is sudden onset of understanding of the university system at present due to the depression in the country’s economy evident in the subsidy removal with rising cost of living.
3. Environmental challenges: The Nigeria universities suffer environmental challenges especially universities in Northern Nigeria where there are cases of Boko haram, kidnapping and hostage taking of Academic Staff and students. To this end, Bamiro & Adedeji (2023) noted that Nigerian Government spends just 0.1 percent on research, while Federal and State universities spend only 1.3 percent of their budgets on research. This according to them poses a serious challenge for national development, because research constitutes a veritable catalyst for the effective management of public universities.

Conclusion

It is important to understand that autonomy is entrenched in the Universities Miscellaneous Provisions Act (UMPA). University autonomy especially financial autonomy has been a matter of discourse in Nigeria particularly in academic circles and institutions of higher learning without it, quality of teaching and research are constrained. Universities are seen as reservoir of knowledge all over the world, and it will be rendered inactive if the financial autonomy is curtailed or tampered. Granting full financial autonomy will give individual universities power in the area of its finances, such as review of university tuition fees and other benefits but the implication will be school fees will be higher

Recommendations

 In view of this, effective and efficient financial autonomy is dependent on the:

1. Availability of education system in Nigeria to provide quality education, the country needs efficient fund management in the school as the effective utilization of funds is very crucial in the operation of the financial tertiary autonomy in order to achieve its set goals.
2. Government should limit its role to policy framework, regulation and recreation to strengthening of institutions like NUC, TETfund, education bank, scholarships and student loans to address the multifaceted challenges of university education.
3. Government and critical stakeholders should review university autonomy laws to appropriately address funding, including staff remuneration, institutional governance, as well as the issue of internally generated revenue.

References

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Adeniyi P O. Repositioning Nigerian Universities for national sustainable development. A paper presented atbthe 10th Quarterly Public Affairs forum series: Ondo state, Nigeria, 2008

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Akintoye J R. Optimizing output from Tertiary education institutions via adequate funding: A      lesson from Nigeria: The principle of Fiscal justice. Journal of studies in 1.thication.      2008; 1(1):3-11.

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Bamiro O A, Adedeji O S. Sustainable financing of higher education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 2010.

 Bare E O. Public-Private Funding Strategies in the Administration of Universities in South-         South. M. Ed Thesis, University of Port Harcourt, 2010.

Enaohwo J O. Economics of education and the planning challenges. New Delhi, India: An mol,   1990. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Development 178

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Federal Republic of Nigeria. National policy on education. Abuja: Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council. Google (2016). Funding, 2014. Retrieved October 10, 2023          from.  Mhttps://www.google.com/search?9=fundingi%3

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Abstract

Social justice in tertiary institutions connotes the idea of the distribution of educational opportunities or benefits to different groups of citizens in a country equally and fairly. However, this is met with several challenges that have to do with politics and leadership which undermines the autonomy of the universities in the event of discharging their constitutional responsibilities. The paper being of a thematic analysis type employs the philosophical research method of speculation and analysis to discuss the problems of the distribution of educational benefits in our universities while exploring through the utilitarian theory of welfare by Bentham and others. It was found that Nigerian universities are availed with several strategies for which they use to distribute educational places as well as resources but bedeviled with several challenges from the political class in managing these resources. It was concluded that the future is bright for the citizens if these universities are well funded and equipped with the necessary facilities to meet up with 21^st century challenges of education.

Key Words: Autonomy,Distribution, Social Justice, Judgements in Education, Quota system, reverse discrimination, entitlement theory

Introduction

Autonomy is known to be a neoliberal concept which connotes the idea that individuals/organizations should be given the right to live/operate their affairs with little or no government intervention in the social contract. However, on personal grounds it may imply giving individuals the right to operate freely without restricting their ability to make legitimate choices without the interference of a government or superior authority. It is well known for some time now that Nigeria has introduced a lot of policies that have undermined the autonomy of Nigerian universities for which they were hitherto established with their governing councils. This can be seen from the section 2AA and 2AAA of the Universities Autonomy Act which was an amendment to the Universities (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act No. 11 of the 1993 to provide for the Autonomy of the universities and other related matters. Section 2AA for instance, states that “The powers of the Council shall be exercised as in the laws and statuses of each University and to these extent establishment circulars that are inconsistent with the Laws and statuses of the University that shall not apply to the universities” and continuing in 2AAA that; “The Governing Council of a University shall be free in the discharge of its functions and exercise of its responsibilities for the good management, growth and development of the country”[1]. However, with the introduction of the Treasury Single Account (TSA) and the Integrated Payroll and Personnel Information System (IPPIS) the autonomy of these governing Councils in the Nigerian university system has been stifled and made a thing of ridicule, this is because it has limited drastically the powers and rights of the Governing Councils in terms of appointment, promotion and discipline of the university staff and shifted to the hands of some political offices like those of the Accountant General of the Federation.

This and other matters such as the introduction of tuition fees to the universities and removal of revitalization funds forced the Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) to go on strike for 8 months. But was this effort crowned with success or was it futile? It may seem futile as many conceived, having gone for a strike for such a long period of time with no tangible results to take back to its members but empty promises.[2] And now the consequences of such failure have begun to manifest on the introduction of tuition fees and forcing the ASUU members to remain in the IPPIS even though it has not captured all the peculiarities of the Academic Staff in all ramifications. The admission and distribution of educational benefits has also suffered from political setbacks in many respects. The infrastructure of the universities is also reported to be dilapidated to handle the challenges of the 21^st century educational demands.[3] These and other reasons made it necessary for the philosophers of Education Association of Nigeria (PEAN) to address the theme of Tertiary Institutions Autonomy and Social Justice for which this paper hopes to achieve in the clarification of the terms for appropriate understanding of the Nigerian populace. These concepts include, autonomy, social justice, Nigerian Universities Act, distribution of educational benefits etc. To these analyses, we shall now turn.

What is Autonomy?

Autonomy in a neoliberal parlance connotes the idea that individuals should be given the right or privilege to conduct their life, businesses or economic activities with minimum or no interference by the state or government. The concept is viewed on the premise that human beings are rational animals and hence, need to be given some form of freedom to operate with little or no supervision as this is liable to bring about innovation, competition and general progress and development. This is why it is sometimes argued as an aim of education for which schools or curriculum experts are charged with the responsibility of designing a programme for that. J. S. Mill[4] has probably had the most influence on liberal philosophy of education in the formulation of autonomy as an aim of education. His conception of autonomy is, however, controversial. Autonomy is usually more richly specified as rational autonomy since rationality is also thought to be a vital educational aim. In a school setting, by rational autonomy, it is meant the freedom given to students to exercise their rights as rational human beings in terms of choice and action to decide in some certain circumstances of their studies such as choosing the courses they want to study and also negotiating the convenience of their lecture timetables. We shall however, be more specific with university autonomy here. This is because it directly deals with the virtue of nurturing the best brains in the nation. Hence the need to give them such autonomy in order to lead the country in research and development for the good of all. The question however, is, are the Nigerian universities truly autonomous with the current integration of IPPIS? This is tantamount to undermining the productive capacities of the universities as they are stifled and choked to operate under the auspices of inexperienced politicians as to how the universities should be operated.

What is Social Justice?

The concept of justice as a matter of being a universal virtue culled from the Greek virtues of Idealism, simply put is rendering to Caesar what is Caesar’s. This may connote being just, but with some implications as to what actually Caesar’s is and who is Caesar?  Socrates has for instance, in many respects tried to discuss the concept of justice in ‘Euthypro’, ‘Apology’ and ‘Crito’[5] while trying to fathom the justification for his conviction and incarceration in the court of law, up to his execution by the jury of Athens. Justice in this regard could be seen from the dimension of law and the maintenance of order or the rule of law. This implies equality in the treatment of individual citizens in the state by the state for the sake of peace and tranquility in the society. This means, the act of being just is the process of dispensation of justice here. Justice is a moral concept that connotes judgment and assessment of some acts as to whether they are done the right way or not, this may lead to serious ethical debate which we do not have the time to discuss in detail, however, we need to be unambiguous as to what we mean by the concept here. By Justice, it is meant equality[6] or equity, and by equality we mean fairness, that is the state of being equal. 

Social justice, in contemporary politics, social sciences, and political philosophy, means the fair treatment and equitable status of all individuals and social groups within a state or society. The term also is used to refer to social, political, and economic institutions, laws, or policies that collectively afford such fairness and equity. It is commonly applied to movements that seek fairness, equity, inclusion, self-determination, or other goals for currently or historically oppressed, exploited, and marginalized populations.[7] Social justice in the university system borders around the politics of distribution of educational places or admission based on the principles of justice, equity, fairness and equal educational opportunities for all.

Furthermore, due to the controversies surrounding the meanings of justice, we shall divide justice into two parts: Retributive justice and social justice. Retributive Justice is the justice that comes legal matters in the court of law, just like the one Socrates of Athens was battling with. We have less to do with this type of justice in this paper. The other justice which is our major concern is distribution or social justice which is the justice that relates to matters of fairness in the distribution of any benefits among people in the society. With scarce resources in Nigeria educational system, how do we distribute educational benefits with fairness among Nigerians? Do we distribute education according to status, entitlements, competition or do we employ reverse discrimination? We take each one of these principles of social justice in turn and see the benefit or otherwise of using it as a means of distribution of education in Nigerian universities.

 Distribution of Education According to Status

This is the situation where a person’s social position or region is used as criteria for educating that person. This method of distributing educational benefit was rejected in the 19^th century in the Western Society because of the demands for equality of opportunity, career was open to talents. But in Nigeria this principle of justice is still being used. Region of origin is still used as criteria for admission into our universities. The challenges we may face in this distribution include:

1. Distribution according to status is inefficient on utilitarian ground, because the talent of the children of the poor is wasted.
2. It is contrary to merit and needs.   Those most capable of becoming educated are not given most priority in education.

Distribution of Education According to Entitlement

In a book ‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’ written by R. Nozick[8], it says any distribution of goods is just if the goods are acquired according to:

1. A just principle of acquisition
2. A just principle of exchange
3. A just principle of compensation

Nozick favours free exchange and do insist that it must be done without force or fraud or coercion which is a threatening use of force. According to entitlement principles any free exchange is fair. We have the right to those goods if we acquire them through free exchange. No one has the right to remove our entitlement. A gift is also fair because each individual is free to give gift out of what he/she acquires freely and it is not by force or fraud. Entitlement theory gives freedom from interference from owners. Also no one can be exploited in order to maximise welfare of others. It is a theory which strongly emphasizes people’s right. When applied to education, entitlement theory enables teachers to sell their services. This means knowledge will go to the highest bidder. This theory nullifies the willingness and ability of the parents to pay for their children’s education. A just distribution of knowledge is any distribution acquired through free exchange, which paved way for private schools and extra lessons by teachers. Looking at the criticisms against this method we could see for instance, that Nnajiofor and Ifeakor[9] cited Vergas (2010) to have argued that the most significant shortcoming of the entitlement theory is that it is a construction without any foundation, as it is, it has very little, if any, practical value, stating that instead of providing an original principle of justice in acquisition, he ended up leaning on Locke’s theory of property. Let us view some other criticisms from the following respects:

1.  Children without Resources: Children depend on their parents. The entitlement theory gives children no right on their parents. Parents have no obligation to the children. This means the children of the poor will remain without education since they cannot afford to pay for it. This is a problem.
2. Punishment: Force and fraud are to be prevented by law, the state. Those that engage in force and fraud should be punished. The problem is those people or children that are poor and who have no resources are unable to acquire education hence unable to know the law.  The question iscan we justify their being punished for something they don’t know? They will have known if they had been educated. Therefore, entitlement theory fails because it cannot make it possible for the people to know the law. If distribution of educational benefit through entitlement has so many problems then maybe we should distribute education according to competition

Distribution of Education According to Fair Competition

According to procedural theory of fair competition developed by Tom Tyler[10] and his colleagues, any distribution of knowledge is just if it is the result of just procedure of distribution. What is just procedure of distribution of knowledge? The just procedure for distribution of knowledge is a fair competition. The question is fair if (a) no irrelevant restriction on entry (b) no special handicaps or advantage at start or during competition. Two problems emerge with this consideration: Which restrictions are relevant? And What are special handicaps or disadvantages? Related to our purpose of the competition, if we want to find the fastest runner among many people of the same height, then we forget about their ages and concentrate on their height. Furthermore using bicycle in running race is cheating but it is not cheating for a bicycle race because it suits our purpose.

How do we justify fair Competition? Firstly, there is utility of consumers: Using initial argument, an examination is adequate (The main purpose is predication). The idea in examination is to select those who will be most successful. Therefore, the most successful candidate will achieve most. By achieving most he/she will maximise welfare e.g. Doctors.

Secondly, fair competition is increasing the autonomy of the individual (i.e. freedom), this is because it gives one the ability to plan for life. One can plan to become whatever one wants with hard work. But then, what sort of action will be rewarded?

Thirdly, looking at fair competition with respect to desert, we can see that those who work hard deserve the products of their efforts. The most deserving are the ones to receive what they seek in competition. A fair competition would aim at ensuring that success was as a result of effort and talent not social position. But talent is inherited. We still reject talent because of its social base? No the talents have to be used if it is going to lead to achievement of something. Talent is requiring effort in order to achieve. Although all the three points above are in favour of fair competition, having a weakness, each played a role and therefore a combination of all the three might justify the principle.  Even though fair competition fails to maximise welfare, it gives us a better production than other methods. This also implies better productivity. Productivity is the main feature. The aim of productivity requires the competition to be relevant. One of the grounds of autonomy, in fair competition is there is no forced labour. This might increase productivity. One might decide to reject competition. Fair competition leads to the removal of underserved advantages and disadvantages. This might increase productivity as well as the justification for fair competition above some problems may still persist. For example do we apply fair competition at initial education that is the primary school? May be we need different principles e.g. conditions necessary for fair competition. Another problem is that when there is competition only the successful ones will be selected and those restricted by the competition could even enter the competition what do we do with them? What do we do with the disadvantaged group? May be we adopt reverse discrimination. But then, what is reverse discrimination?

Distribution of education according to Reverse Discrimination and Quota System

Reverse discrimination is a programme for the disadvantaged groups. The main idea is to compensate the disadvantaged groups and attempts to remove handicaps and advantages for future competition, and by introducing policies like quota system, catchment area, and preferential selection of individuals and so on. This method is considered as one of the best ways to give the disadvantaged groups equal opportunity to accessing education. Quota System and Catchment Areas is a method of identifying the disadvantaged group e.g. women, rural candidates etc. and reverse a quota of places for them at the university, for example; in this group the less successful in competition are given places in the educational system excluding more successful, better qualified candidates from other groups.

This method of distribution of education will produce a more equal and balanced education for the society. The methods also make better services to the disadvantaged areas. This method gives greater participation in government which is beneficial in national unity. The method also brings about development of minority cultures. But the procedure is opposed on many grounds. It is unjust to discriminate e.g. not giving chance for somebody with higher marks. It affects the autonomy (freedom) of one to plan his life. It fails to maximize welfare as less competent are selected. Increase discount from the more advantaged group thereby bringing disunity.

Preferential Selection of Individuals is another method of investigating candidate’s history to see whether they suffered from disadvantaged. The disadvantaged are given places with lower marks. This method is required by merit. This is not an argument for desert because it deals with past efforts. They fail because they were disadvantaged. On the ground of productivity (i.e. welfare) the disadvantage merit the place and it will lead to the maximization of welfare. This method too has its advantage: for example, there is the problem of cost. This procedure of distribution reduces gains of productivity because a lot of money will be spent to find out whether those disadvantaged have a history of being so. There is also a problem of recognition. How could we know they were thought differently, prescribe the disadvantaged and who are not. Another problem is can we compensate to over-come the disadvantaged?

Some of the programmes of distribution of education discussed above; are clearly justified, while others have obvious disadvantage. Schools’ methods of distribution of education often conflict with maximizing welfare especially when resources are small. At times it is better to favour welfare than justice. For example, consider a case of three schools with 2 mathematics teachers.

A proposal for the Distribution of Human and Material Resources

From the foregoing, we can see that these are matters of educational judgement before we can decide which method is best in the distribution of educational opportunities in our universities and other higher institutions, it is important to clarify here what is meant by educational judgement and how it is done with some criteria to be established.  Philosophy of education however, is concerned with the overall business of education as an enterprise, and more acutely with the soundness and coherence in making educational judgements. As argued by the philosophers of education cited in Doyle[11]. Philosophy of education is a system in which the theoretical reasoning (philosophical) is merged with the practical reasoning (Education). But then, let us clarify what is meant by practical and theoretical reasoning here. But what are these educational judgements? Educational Judgments, e.g. “this is a good school”, “the course is good”, “the teacher is excellent in teaching etc. The basic judgment on education is based on:

1. Content – What should be taught
2. Method – How it should be taught
3. Distribution – who is to be taught
4. Control – Who should decide?

Whenever we intend to pass judgement in education, the above criteria should come to our minds and we should be ready to give adequate reasons and proofs (justification) in a rational fashion free of prejudice and bias.  In summary, philosophy of education looks at the distribution of educational benefits in this light and tries to justify why things are done this way rather than that way. For a curriculum to be successfully implemented, it must be executed by both teaching and non-teaching staff in our schools, these are the human resources. While on the other hand, the material resources have to do with infrastructure and facilities that would ensure the successful accomplishment of the designed program (i.e. the curriculum). Let us then, look into decision making and the distribution of human resources.

Decision making and the Distribution of Human Resources

For the program of education to be successful, the right decisions must be made as to the recruitment of qualified teaching and non-teaching staff. These human resources include teachers, principals/head teachers, computer operators, cleaners, messengers, security guards etc. all of which form the required team to run the program successfully, they ensure smooth conduct and the provision maintenance services for effective implementation of the curriculum. Various agencies have been established for this purpose such as SUBEB, UBEC, TRC/MOE, FMOE/NUC, NCCE, NEB, NBTE, SSSMB etc., all saddled with the responsibilities of managing the human resources. Decisions on how many staff will be allocated to a school is taken by the agencies that control such school. This is however, met with a number of problems. Firstly, the human resources such as teachers, librarians, guidance counsellors, secretaries, gatemen and security are grossly inadequate. Secondly, distribution between Urban and Rural areas should be scrutinized  by asking whether there is even distribution of human resources between schools, and if the human resources are ready to take up appointment in the rural areas. Are the teachers qualified for the job? (Some are not trained, yet are posted by the influence of politicians in a quid-pro quo agreement). Sometimes the recruitment is done on casual basis for a long period of time, and not all are absorbed. Inability of the agencies to provide more spaces for qualified teachers who are on ground despite the inadequacies. Guidance counsellors recruited, but posted as teachers. Problem also abound, when teachers of special subjects are not given priority in the recruitment exercise when those not so trained are forced to teach the special subjects (e.g. Mathematics/English/Philosophy).

Thirdly, on the distribution of material resources: philosophy in this light, seeks to assess the distribution of infrastructure (buildings), facilities (such as toilets, internet, laboratories, libraries, etc.), furniture, overhead costs, textbooks, teaching aids etc.The question is, are the decisions on their distribution well informed and fair?Some schools get more than the others. What are the determining factors in the distribution of material resources?Is it the school location (urban/rural)?Or is it population size of the school?Could it be school type? (Model, science, day, boarding). Whichever the of the factors that is considered, the most important thing to bear in mind is even development and utilitarianism of Bentham, that is, giving the highest good to the greatest number of people, most importantly, the theory of social justice must be given keen attention and that universities need to be autonomous in the effective dispensation of this this justice.

Conclusion

From the foregoing, we have seen that the universities are facing difficulties due to scarcity of space and inability to accommodate all applicants for different programs that they offer as specializations. A serious challenge is feared through the introduction of IPPIS which denies the exercise of university autonomy through its councils throughout the nation. The infrastructure of the universities is also reported be dilapidated, and this has got to do with issues of lack of funding to employ more teaching staff and build more facilities to accommodate the teaming population of students applying into such various spaces. This forces the universities to think about so many strategies from which they can utilize in admitting such students by being just and fair to them so that everyone is given equal access to educational opportunity based on the National Policy on Education’s goal of “a land full of bright opportunities for all citizens”[12]. But is the government ready to finance and revitalize the Nigerian universities to attain such goals? The paper suggested ways in which we can take a comprehensive look at the strategies we can utilize to distribute human and material resources in our institutions and also gave us the criteria for passing judgment in education in order to know the best course of action to take when faced with such options with a consideration of the concept of social justice in our universities.         

Bibliography

Adeleye, Adewale A. and Adekeye Daniel O. Philosophy and Critical Thinking: An Introduction. Ibadan: University Press PLC, 2016.

Channels TV, ASUU Suspends 8-Month Old Strike, Says Issues not Satisfactorily Addressed’, accessed 16^th October, 2023, https://channelstv.com/2022/10/14/breaking-asuu-suspends-8-month-old-strike-conditionally/amp/.

Doyle, J. F.  (Ed.), Educational Judgements: Papers in the Philosophy of Education, London & New York: Routledge & Taylor and Francis Group. 2010.

Duignan, Brian. “Social Justice”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Sep. 2023. https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-justice. Accessed 23 October 2023.

Federal Republic of Nigeria: National Policy on Education 6th edition. Lagos: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council [NERDC] Press, 2013.

Hegan, John and Hans, Valerie P. “Procedural Justice Theory and Public Policy: An Exchange”. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 13, October (2017). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-121416-011426

Monday, O. Michael and Mallo, G, Deborah. “Higher Education in Nigeria: Challenges and Suggestions”, Middle European Scientific Bulletin, 16, September 2021. Accessed October 23, 2023, https://cre.ac.uk/download/480517313.pdf

Nnajiofor, O. Gregory and Ifeakor, C. Stephen, “Robert Nozick’s Entitlement Theory of Justice: A Critique”, Ogirisi: A new journal of African Studies, 12, (2016): http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/og.v12i1.8.

Nozick, Robert.  Anarchy, State and Utopia. New York: Basic Books, 1974.

Oshio, P. Ehi.  Autonomy and the management of Federal Universities under the Universities Autonomy Act, (National Universities Commission) accessed October 16, 2023, https://nigerianlawguru.com/articles/labour%20law/AUTONOMY%20AND20%MANAGEMENT%20OF%20FEDERAL%20UNIVERSITIES%20UNDER%2O%THE%20AUTONOMY%20ACT.pdf.

Translated by Grube, G. M. A.  Plato: Five Dialogues, 2^nd Edition Revised by John M. Cooper. Indiana Polis, Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2002.

Winch, C. and Gingell, J. Philosophy of Education: The Key Concepts, 2nd Edition. London and New York: Routldge and Tailor & Francis Group, 2008.

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[1] P. Ehi Oshio, Autonomy and the management of Federal Universities under the Universities Autonomy Act, (National Universities Commission) accessed October 16, 2023 from https://nigerianlawguru.com/articles/labour%20law/AUTONOMY%20AND20%MANAGEMENT%20OF%20FEDERAL%20UNIVERSITIES%20UNDER%2O%THE%20AUTONOMY%20ACT.pdf

[2] Channels TV, ASUU Suspends 8-Month Old Strike, Says Issues not Satisfactorily Addressed’, accessed 16^th October, 2023, https://channelstv.com/2022/10/14/breaking-asuu-suspends-8-month-old-strike-conditionally/amp/

[3] Okolo Michael Monday and Gregory Deborah Mallo, Higher Education in Nigeria: Challenges and Suggestions, Middle European Scientific Bulletin, 16, September 2021. Accessed October 23, 2023, https://cre.ac.uk/download/480517313.pdf .

[4] Christopher Winch and John Gingell, Philosophy of Education: The Key Concepts, 2nd Edition (London and New York: Routldge and Tailor and Francis Group, 2008), 18.

[5] trans. G. M. A. Grube, Plato: Five Dialogues, 2^nd Edition Revised by John M. Cooper (Indiana Polis, Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2002), 1, 5, 15, 36, 39, 50, 54.

[6] Adewale A. Adeleye and Daniel O. Adekeye, Philosophy and Critical Thinking: An Introduction (Ibadan: University Press PLC, 2016), 140.

[7] Duignan, Brian. “Social Justice”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 21 Sep. 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-justice. Accessed 23 October 2023.

[8] Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia, (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 150.

[9] Osita Gregory Nnajiofor and Chinedu Stephen Ifeakor, “Robert Nozick’s Entitlement Theory of Justice: A Critique”, Ogirisi: A new journal of African Studies, 12, (2016): http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/og.v12i1.8.  

[10] John Hegan and Valerie P. Hans, “Procedural Justice Theory and Public Policy: An Exchange”, Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 13, October (2017). https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-121416-011426

[11] James F. Doyle (Ed.), Educational Judgements: Papers in the Philosophy of Education, (London and Boston: Routledge, 2010), 1.

[12] Federal Republic of Nigeria: National Policy on Education 6th edition (Lagos: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council [NERDC] Press, 2013), 1.

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Abstract

This work, titled, “Quota System and Quality of Nigerian Tertiary Education: “The Contradiction´´, is concerned with the issue of Quota System of admission and the issue of Quota System of admission and qualitative education. The paper posits the Quota System of admission is an anathema to quality education. It presents an opinion based on the fact that, the twin issues are a contradiction, because, one cannot be concerned with Educational inequality and at the same time be striving to achieve quality education. The paper explicated the concept of Quota System and Quality education, after it discussed the issue of Quota System, the contradictions of the two and conclusion which calls for an overhaul of the country education system.

Introduction

This paper reviews the issues of Quota System and the quality education in Nigeria. Given the fact that quality education remains a major call on the lips of most Nigerians even after more than forty years of implementation of the quota system of admission in Nigeria educational sector, one wonders if the quota system of admission has been a catalyst or a hindrance to quality education. Accordingly, the rider is the contradiction, as there is no way you can have quota system of admission and want to also purse quality education, it is like quantity versus quality.

Thus when quality becomes an end in itself. This undermines any possible accruable benefits in such system. A country may not likely develop when a sub-standard education is provided at any level. The position of this paper is that quality education and quota system of admission are incompatible, rather this can be achievable through gradual expansion of opportunities to match resources.

Concept Explication

In this section an attempt is made to explicate the concepts of Quota System and Quality Education. This will provide an in-depth understanding of this paper discourse.

QUOTA

The word “quota” is explained by Encarta dictionary as proportional share of something that somebody should contribute or receive”. This according to Ubong¹ implies, first that there is a group or at least more than one person involved in a sharing situation and that there is something for the group or those involved to share. In addition to that, it implies that, the sharing should be proportional, which the same source refers to as having the correct relationship of size, quantity or degree to something else or remaining the same relationship when things change. The question which is often ask here is, if the sharing formula or approach has the correct relationship and if the relationship should remain the same in the face of changes and of course, whether the sharing formula can meet the important criterion of justice for all those concern.

The quota system according to Wokocha² and Bamaisaiye³ refers to the policy of federal character as applied to the distribution of educational services to the people. Quota admissions are based on merit per state, that is geo-policy, instead on academic merit. Quotas on admissions in schools could be legislated or silent, whichever approach is used or step taken, it is to put some persons or groups in advantageous position and conversely put others at a disadvantaged even if such intent is well meant originally.

Quality Education

As soon as the concept or the word quality of education is mention, many interpretations will begin to cross one’s mind. For the purpose of this paper, few of such meanings will be advanced for an in-depth understanding of the issue. Quality education has to do with the quality in educational input in its entirety. The quality of educational system according to Akinyemi⁴ can be assessed by how adequate and accessible the facilities and materials needed for effective teaching and learning are available in order to ensure that educational programmes meet the national objectives. Quality education in Nwanna’s⁵ views quality in education as the scale of input in the form of funds, equipment facilities, teacher and pupils alike and to the fact that the transaction and output of institutions in the form of their product are acceptable, desirable, beneficial, efficient and effective from the point of view of the government, society, private agencies and stakeholders.

In the words of Maduewesi⁶ it is considered as the baseline standard in education which can be measured on a scale of preference, hence, quality is an expression of standard or the means by which a certain set of standards in education can be achieved.

Philosophically, Dewey⁷ opined that quality education is one which hinges on the extent in which knowledge acquired in school is put into effective use at once but in an endless way. For him, quality education is one which is aimed at developing critical thinking and problem solving skills, as equipment to cope with unforeseen problems which a perpetually charging world offers. This section will end up by stating that quality education is based in learners ability to raised far above their original levels, which Paulo-Friere sarcastically referred to as banking education, because learners serve as receptacles of teachers pre-digested materials. The idea of quality education hinging on knowledge acquired in schools when put into effective use, not once, but in an endless way will be the reference point of this paper⁸.

Arguably, Enoh⁹ uphold that, if quality is measured immediately after a certain cycle of education, one very easily confuse it with performance. No doubt such evaluation may be faulty in view of several factors that may affect outcome. However, when one delay such an evaluation to some future time, one is more likely to get a more realistic assessment. This view of quality education viewed what is acquired in school as tools and the extent to which the grandaunts are able to carry out with it, becomes a good measure of the quality of education, they have received. Thus Dewey¹⁰ remarked that, “The criterion of the value of school education is the extent in which it creates a desire for continued growth and supplies means for making the desire effective in fact.”

Issue of Quota System

The Quota system can be located in Aristotle’s theory of Distributive¹¹ justice. The sage opined that “it is unjust to treat equals unequally and unequal people equally”. The idea of streamline is based on a large extent on the principle as for instance, putting gifted children in a separate class from autistic ones. It is not right to have children with learning difficulty in the same class with gifted ones.

Distributive justice can be extended in the case of admission into Institutions of higher education. Thus, Ubong¹⁰ is of the view that, bulk of the Nigerian Youths applying for University places are excessively limited by law to be equal, irrespective of tribe or tongue or economic means. However, the question in the minds of people is it fair to allow a child/children from areas considered to be educationally disadvantaged to compete on equal positions with those from the educationally advantaged areas. Conversely, in a statutory framework of equality of opportunity, the law is just to legislate that such children from educationally disadvantaged areas are denied access to education. The issue of quality education comes into contradiction with Quota System of Admission which tend to encourage mediocrity.

One may argue that children who got admission, on the ticket of educationally disadvantaged areas, with low marks scored in examination, becomes top administrators and security personnel at the expense of those who were intellectual qualified during admission but were denied such opportunities. This explains perharps why we have mediocrity in our country. This quota system of admission entrenches inequality which affects quality education in Nigeria. This rather produces people with wrong or unrequired skills. The Universities have produced people with elitist orientation based on quantity of education which has not made the nation better. They have merely join the bandwagon of pen pushers or the unemployed.

Though not entirely in support of the extreme involving the accelerated output, of candidates from any given level of education, selection of candidates through the quota system favours a more even distribution of school places through the adoption of such measures. In defence of the quota system, Jibril Amimu¹¹ that in matters of admission, some issues remain unsettled, if this his views are implemented as they seemed to be at the moment. In the words of Enoh¹² the first has to do with achieving the goal of national integration while second is connected with the prospects of achieving expected balance between so called advantaged and disadvantaged groups.

The very fact that quota system of selection discriminates between groups shows that, it is not a full solution to higher education in Nigeria, rather, it aggravates the problem or succeeds in reversing directions of such discrimination from disadvantaged groups to advantaged ones. In essence, however the problem remains it in this sense that Akinpelu¹³ opined that, reverse discrimination or quota system is bad. As long as this measure is adopted, feelings of injustice by those presently deprived will surely undermined a sense of quality education in Nigeria.

The prospects of achieving quality education through quota system of admission appears dubious without agreement on a possible date of halting the process. For it induces the feelings of complacency and mediocrity in candidates from deprived areas based on the likely thinking that easier channels will always be created to see them through. Quality may therefore be neglected or sacrifice on the altar of quota, to the extent that only very few get through to the higher levels where the various instruments of balancing are applied. This is what the application of quota system in-advently has brought about to Nigerian higher education.

One thing must not however be lost sight of, is the issue of quality Nigerian higher education. This is, as it is experienced, that to achieve quota system admission more universities are being established. Undoubtedly, the aim of extending education to a wider segment of the population, quality is bound to drop since those with less abilities will increasingly find their way into schools. What is urgently needed is the will to select from among these, those who can benefit from higher education and keep its quality as high as it ought to be. But is not to suggest that, to some extent, quality cannot be controlled, even at the Primary Level¹⁴.

In order to achieve quality education right from Primary School, the degree of access has to be looked into as well. Free Education at all levels need to be looked at beyond its political consideration. The degree to which education achieves the purpose depends more on its quality. However, when quantity becomes an end in itself, it undermines any possible, advantages accruable from its implementation which breeds poor quality education. When higher levels become so affected, all the space of overall declining quality becomes accelerated due to the effect of what has been described as extension of the aesthetic electorate in which Low quality of the reading public progressively lowers the quality of literary output.

A country does not develop when the entire budget is spent on education while other sectors of the economy stagnate. It does not also do so when sub-standard education is provided at any level. What is considered is objective consideration of all factors and apportioning appropriate resources to each. This means the amount of education any country can provide her citizens should always be related to availability of funds, and not the filling of classrooms, but the assurance that those in it are sufficiently trained for maximum returns.

The Contradiction between Quota System and Quality Education in Nigeria

Quota System Education cannot be practised in a system which advocates quality education. This is a contradiction because quota system is emotive rather than being qualitative. Quota System is not based on academic merit. Therefore, practising quota system of admission in Nigeria, is like treating the symptoms rather than the main ailment, while trying to address an anomaly, a new anomaly bordering on quality education emerges.

Quota System of admission entrenches inequality thereby affecting quality of education in the country which causes the country to produced half-baked graduates in some cases. For the prospects or chances of achieving quality education appears dubious and therefore a contradiction. One cannot be pursuing a policy of quota system and yet expect to achieve quality education, quality education is one which is aimed at developing critical thinking and problem solving skills, as equipment to cope with unforeseen problems, which a nation like Nigeria needs. With the introduction of quota system, the country seemed to have lost sight of a high qualitative education. Rather, it has introduced what Dore¹⁶ referred to as “certificate spiral and education inflation” which amount to qualification disease. For quota system of admission came to apply, as higher educational attainments came to achieve what very marginaled education previously could not. Quality Education has not received much attention as observed in the current Nigeria higher education, because it has been sacrificed on the altar of quota system of admission.

The National Policy on Education provides a clue to the type of quality education preferred. It rejects memorization and regurgitation of facts and preferring instead practical, exploratory and experimental methods, the imaginative model is seen to be better.

Conclusion

The fundamental sources of crisis in Nigerian tertiary education have to do with either the failure to appreciate and therefore come to grips with the truth that education is the indispensable key to sustainable development, human capital being the most crucial factor of production.Surprisingly, there was a consensus on the introduction of the quota system in admissions. This was required to move the country forward, but it appears it has instead move the country to brink of virtual educational collapse and a way from accompanying and associated abyss of despair. Quality education in Nigerian tertiary education need an overhaul of the entire system. It is the obvious to state categorically that, the abuse of application of the twin issue of quota system and quality education has caused the riot in Nigerian educational system.

More importantly, perhaps, is the recognition of what needs to be done and where to begin the overhauling exercise. There is no doubt that, overhauling the decaying system created by the introduction of quota system on the alter of quality education is urgently needed. What needs to be done is, to frontally address the problem of qualitative education, particularly higher education in Nigeria in this century. As to where to begin to tackle what needs to be done in order to overhaul the decaying and dilapidating educational edifice in Nigeria, needs competing propositions position which are advanced thus:

First, the assault should begin at primary level of education. This position is eloquently canvassed. This position is eloquently canvassed with the participation of private individuals in the establishment of Nursery/Primary School, it has contributed to the overhauling of education sector. The second propositions is that in order to avert the imminent collapse of the educational system in Nigeria, the overhauling exercise must begin at the base of the educational pyramid which is the primary and basic sub-system. One cannot talk of quality education without quality of input and output. Quota System of admission is therefore anathema to quality education, thus the contradiction.

Conclusively, while government aimed at providing education to a wider segment of the population through quota system of admission, quality is bound to drop, since those with less abilities will increasingly find their way into schools. What is urgently need, is the will to select from among these, those who can benefit from higher education and keep its quality as high as it ought to be. But this is not to suggest that, to some extent, quality cannot be controlled, even at the Primary level.

References

1. Ubong B – Quota System and Equalization of Educational Opportunities in Nigeria; The way forward: Essay in Honour of Professor Joseph, Donatus Okoh, Edited by Ibitamuno M.A. and Osaat, S.D. 2015, P196 Port Harcourt.
2. Wokocha, A.M (1996) The Politics of the Quota System in Nigerian Education Journal of Quality Education, 3, 27-36.
3. Bamisaiye, E.A, Analysis and Policy Implementation of Quota System of Admission in B.O. Ukeje – Crucial Issues in Education: The Case of Nigeria – Port-Harcourt Pan Unique Publishers, 1998.
4. Akinyemis, A.S, Funding Strategy for Quality University Education in Nigeria: The Principle of Fiscal Justice, url:https://dxdo.org/w.526 JSE, Vol. 103
5. Nwanna M.I. Estimating returns to Schools Quality. Journal of Social Sciences 24(3) 35-41, 2002.
6. Maduewesi, E.J Unionism and Quality Assurance in the Nigerian Academic System In O.E Ekpo and U.M.O Ivowi (Eds) Unionism and Academic Productivity in the Nigerian Education System, 2002, Uyo, Interconnect Publishers.
7. Dewey, John Democracy and Education: 1994, New York, Macmillan Publishers.
8. Freire, Paulo, Pedagogy of the Oppressed: 1972, London: Harmondsworth.
9. Enoh, A.O, Quantity and Quality in Education: Conceptual Analysis and Policy Options for Nigeria – Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy, Vol. II No. 2, 2001
10. Aristotle –
11. Ubong, B – Op-Cit
12. Jibril Aminu, – Quality and Stress in Nigerian Education, Maiduguri, Zaria University of Maiduguri and Northern Nigerian Publishing Co, 1986, P13.
13. Enoh, A.O, Main Currents in Nigerian Educational Thought, Sterling-Hordern Publishers Ltd, Ibadan, 2014 P297.
14. Akipelu, J.A Equality of  Educational Opportunity Revisited “Nigerian Journal of Educational Philosophy, 1990, Vol 15, P.12
15. Enoh – Op-Cit
16. Brand Blanshard; Quantity or Quality: Harvard Educational Review Vol XXXVI, 1956 No. 2, PP 199-202.

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Abstract

The study investigates the use of Whatsapp as an instructional medium in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Whatsapp instructional medium is a modern technology innovation that is rapidly gaining awareness globally. It is a very useful alternative application for communication and  teaching between lecturers and students without making direct contact and be able to support learning needs in today’s digital era. Whatsapp facilitates discussions between lecturers and students and among students with direct communication through tests / group messages, video or audio calls. These create excitement among learners and motivate them to study harder. The study is written in an opinion form, using the human capital theory as a fulcrum. Among the benefits arising from the use of Whatsapp are WhatsApp instant messaging facilitates online collaboration and cooperation between online students connected from school or home in a blended mobile lecture,  it is a free application that is easy to use, and groups connected to WhatsApp instant massaging can share learning objects easily through comments, texting and messaging. Discussions are related to the course content taught 100% in-class. Also, the challenges include lack of ICT facilitates in schools such as computers, projectors and android phones, knowledge in the use of online media platforms by some lecturers; and epileptic power in the country. It was thus recommended among others that ICT facilities should be fully installed in tertiary institutions in the country, lecturers should key into the use of whatsapp as an instructional platform, steady power should be available in schools for online instructional applications; and Whatsapp should be used in giving assignments

Introduction

The Whatsapp platform is one of the interactive social media that can be used as an institutional medium of communication between two or more people. It enables chatting with friends, creating groups and transmitting content in the form of text, image, video or audio; and represents the most widespread and diverse new communication model in its communication uses, so that it has become difficult to dispense with. Young people use WhatsApp via smart mobile phones to build networks of friends, coordinate with them, spread information and ideas and thanks to the instant nature of the application, it is increasingly used among lecturers and students for teaching/learning outcomes in tertiary institutions.

Today, WhatsApp, has over a billion active users (Abdullah, 2021); it has replaced SMS messages with small messages within an eponym application. These multimedia messages are OTT (over-the-top tell) messages that are transmitted over the Internet, non-stop to the telephone operator. Also, WhatsApp requires internet connectivity for its service(s). Once it is downloaded into one’s phone, one can start sending messages to other users having the same application (Aishareef, 2018). This implies that WhatsApp messages can only be received by its other users; and its service replaces the normal SMS text messages. Likewise, it enables users to interact with friends and relatives across nations free of charge; once users subscribe to an internet data plan, it uses the same for email and web browsing, thereby attracting no cost to messages sent to others. Similarly, WhatsApp enables users to create groups, exchange images, videos and audio or written with less stress (Makoe, 2010).

Technology has simplified most processes of instruction in tertiary institution (i.e. universities and polytechnics) hence, WhatsApp is one of the learning tools made possible by the technological innovation of the 21st Century (Almosa & Almubarak, 2015). This is due to some of the popular messaging app’s attributes that make it an ideal solution for lecturers and students in the teaching-learning process. However, the major reason for WhatsApp is communication, and this makes it one of the fastest and most effective instructional media of interaction and learning between lecturers and students in tertiary institutions (Barhoumi, 2015). WhatsApp facilitates communication and is efficient means of dispersing educational resources and information to students.

The tertiary institutions comprise special features which influence the behaviours of human beings. The human components include the learners, lecturers and administrators among others. As a social system, it is characterized by the existence of both institutional and individual goals and in several instances, these goals are similar; which is to produce graduates with high academic performance. This is realizable when its leaders carefully structure and ensure that lecturers groom the learners thoroughly using the tool of education.

Education, being the cornerstone / epicentre for development in any society, aids in literacy, skills acquisition, technological advancement and is a tool which helps to harness human and material resources toward the achievement of societal goals. The quality of any society depends on the educational development of its citizens and Nigeria is not an exemption. Both Akpan and Etor (2013) asserted that education is a process by which abilities of individuals are developed; these abilities might be physical, intellectual, emotional or social. It is the systematic training of the individual in order to produce positive changes in his behaviour and become a fulfilled person. It plays multifaceted roles in the society including nation building and development and helps in building students into societal giants who make positive impacts. This can be actualized through quality teaching in the lecture rooms.

Teaching on the other hand, connotes a group of activities which a teacher may engage in the process of practicing his occupation. The very acts of teaching itself; as in explaining, demonstrating, illustrating, dramatizing, rewarding, punishing, motivating etc. aim at helping the learner to acquire or change some skill, attitude, knowledge, ideas or appreciation. Abeya (2017) opined that teaching involves bringing about or facilitating desirable change in learners. It requires the teacher to step out of the realm of personal experience and enter the world of the learners.

Teaching is concerned with human beings and the development of their minds and potentials (Abuka, 2014; Bhagwat, 2016). Individuals differ in intelligence, attitude, aptitude, interest, motivation, needs and temperament among others. Consequently, what may interest one may not interest another, what may challenge one, may not challenge another. This is the background of the complex nature of teaching. Thus, the recognition and appreciation of this fact of individual differences is the first step of teaching effectiveness. Lecturers are able to give room for creativity, intellectualism, hospitality, love for wisdom and the ability to understand the theme of individual differences. These days, online teaching is gradually replacing the face to face method of teaching in institution of learning (Abas et al, 2019; ACRL, 2018).

Theoretical Framework

Human Capital Theory by Adam Smith (1776)

The human capital theory was postulated by Adams Smith in 1776 and developed by Gary Becker in 1964. It stipulates that man’s ability to perform different tasks is based on the skills and knowledge inbuilt in him and external forces such as education, training and incentives which help to boost his qualities. Human capital theory suggests the combined stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personal attributes embodied in an intrinsic measure of economic value. It considers individuals as economic units that are important in any economy. The basic concept of human capital theory is that investments in individuals can be measured based on the economic value that they are able to contribute to the society.

Becker (1964) stated that in every society, there is the urgent need for growth; hence, human capital theory asserts that there is a significant relationship between the growth in the stock of a nation’s human resources and the growth of national output. It is therefore advantageous that countries which want to attain specific level of socio-economic manpower resources, invest in their human resources (e.g. lecturers and students). The scholar further stated that the educational system should be able to generate the right type of manpower in the right proportion, quantity and time for national growth and development.

This theory is premised on the assumption that skills and competences acquired by people is a factor of production comparable to other factors of production such as machine and land. For instance, teaching-learning outcomes are dependent on the instructional roles of lecturers among other factors. Thus, this proposal of human capital theory observes that human resources are invaluable assets to a society that tend to enhance its productive capacity; which follows that human capital forms the tools that enable all other resources to survive. Consequently, this can only be when human capital is well harnessed and properly utilized. The theory further takes into cognizance the use of online teaching media such as the Whatsapp in the course of acquiring quality education. It shows that if students are built, a nation is built.

In further relating the theory to present study, the educational goal of every society relies on the development of individuals to be moral and effective citizens with equal access to qualitative education, building up persons who can be totally integrated into their immediate environment and other environment. It is obvious that if lecturers appropriately utilize their instructional expertise, is strengthened through educational / instructional online platforms such as the Whatsapp, it will greatly assist in the management of human resources particularly the students for higher academic performance and societal development in general.

Concept of e-Teaching              

E-teaching is among the educational outcomes that has surfaced from the development of ICT. Its general concept is essentially teaching and learning which involves the usage of any electronic device, from computers to mobile phones and which might or might not involve the usage of the internet (Websites + other applications) or an intranet (Local network system). (Garcia & Escofet, 2013).

E-teaching is the delivery of teaching through technology and the internet (Gros & García-Peñalvo, 2016). It is the use of information and communication technologies in diverse processes of education to support and enhance teaching and learning in schools and includes the usage of information and communication technology as a complement to traditional classrooms, online teaching or mixing the two modes.  E-teaching enables students to undertake education at any time, in virtual groups or isolation and discuss contents with teachers via synchronous and asynchronous mechanisms. Therefore, it supports self-managed work frameworks and improve efficiency of learning management system (Weichhart et al, 2018). E-teaching as a concept covers a range of applications, teaching methods and processes. It uses telecommunication technology to deliver information for education and training. As information and communication technology progresses, e-teaching is emerging as the paradigm of modern education. (Smith, 2015; Singhal, 2016). 

The advancement in e-teaching started through Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) for students, society and the industry since 2012 (Chen, 2010). MOOCs are recognized as a significant development in schools, as millions of students are taking the benefits and uplifting their existing skills (Gupta & Gupta, 2020). E-teaching platforms are playing a crucial role in the world. Its aims include to help instructors and schools to facilitate student learning during academic and non – academic periods. The success of any information system however depends on its usage by the users.

Algahtani (2011) described the completely online mode as “synchronous” or “asynchronous” by the application of optional timing of interaction. The synchronous timing comprises alternate on-line access between instructors and learners or between learners; and the asynchronous, to him allows all participants to post communications to any other participant over the internet. The synchronous type allows learners to discuss with the instructors and also among themselves via the internet at the same time with the use of e-learning platforms such as the Whatsapp, Zoom, Go-to Meeting, video conference and chat rooms. This type according to Almosa and Almubarak (2015) offers the advantage of instantaneous feedback. The asynchronous mode also enables learners to discuss with the instructors as well as among themselves over the internet at different times. It is therefore not interaction at the same moment but later, with the use of platforms such as thread discussion and emails, with an advantage that learners are able to learn at a time that suits them whilst a disadvantage is that the learners will not be able to receive instant feedback from instructors as well as their colleague learners.

The e-teaching system completely reduces the issues of insufficient classrooms for lectures as students can easily take the lectures online at their convenience. Also, it affords students and lecturers the opportunity to participate in class in their comfort zone with basic amenities they need when compared to the traditional teaching method where sometimes these basic amenities are unavailable (Leaynan & Emily, 2020).

WhatsApp History

The WhatsApp app was designed by Brian Anton and Jan Koom (both Yahoo employees) and launched in 2009 (Lu & Churchill, 2014). The producers’ story has been a major success; which has been supported by an 8 million dollar investment by Major Sequoia, one of Silicon Valley’s most fashionable investors’ holding companies. WhatsApp as a concept is coined from the English phrase “What’s up?” meaning “What’s new?”. It is an instant messaging application for smartphones that enables users to exchange images, videos and audio or written messages using their Internet connection as well as share photos with other users over the internet. According to Chokri (2015), WhatsApp has positioned itself as a superior alternative to SMS messaging, which can be very expensive when utilized in foreign countries due to roaming charges.

Both lecturers and students can create a WhatsApp group chat for easy access and communication between teachers and students, students and students, lecturers and parents, and among parents. WhatsApp lecturers help to facilitate the creation and sharing of video, audio and text messages among users. It is a free, multi-platform messaging app that enables users send and receive text messages, make video and voice calls, share their status and more with a Wi-Fi connection. Part of what makes this app appealing is that it works on various phone and computer operating systems, so that one can continue one’s conversation anytime and anywhere. It can also take advantage of Wi-Fi and cellular data to make one-on-one or group calls, reducing the need for expensive calling charges (ACRL, 2018).

Furthermore, WhatsApp uses a phone’s cellular or Wi-Fi connection to facilitate messaging and voice calling to nearly anyone on the planet, alone or in a group, and is very nice for small collaborative workgroups. The app enables one to make calls, send and receive messages and share documents, photos, and videos. Also, WhatsApp is absolutely free – with no fees or subscriptions – since it uses a phone’s 5G, 4G, 3G, 2G, EDGE, or Wi-Fi connection instead of a cell plan’s voice minutes or text plan. Likewise, if one is connected via Wi-Fi, it will not eat into one’s data plan.

Benefits of Whatsapp Platform for Instructional Activities

Several valuable reasons have been advanced and listed by scholars such as Barhoumi (2015) and Bhagwat (2016) for the adoption of WhatsApp in the classroom by educators. Some of them are:

1. Groups connected to WhatsApp instant massaging can share learning objects easily through comments, texting and messaging. WhatsApp group chats feature can be used to create learning, virtual classes and study groups for students; particularly, those students who are sick and not capable of coming to physical class can use this feature to connect with the classrooms.
2. Lecturers can use the group chat to make possible discussions with the students outside their classrooms.
3. Students can make use of the group chat to solve problems arising from lecturers’ take home assignments by asking and clarifying issues.
4. It can be used to create both text-based messages and audio-based lessons for students, which can be made available directly to them. This can be original lesson prepared by the lecturer or recorded lecture already presented to students in the class. The students that missed the lecture can then listen to it repeatedly, thereby given them the opportunity to learn more.
5. It creates equal opportunities for all levels of students to get access to their lecturers with minimal cost.
6. It facilitates immediate feedback to students’ assignment, which may be returned via text and audio files respectively.
7. It gives unrestricted messaging to all phones that have Internet connections.                               
8. It is a good avenue for class timing.
9. It could be used directly over the Internet via WhatsApp, Web and WiFi with ease.
10. It enables instructors to send graphics (pictures/photos), videos, audio messages and charts to students/learners.
11. Students use WhatsApp platform to clarify doubts arising from instructors’ class assignments
12. Lecturers and students can be in constant touch outside the classroom, and also within and outside the territorial boundaries.

Also, the findings by Smith (2015) and Singhal (2016) in their separate empirical studies on the application of mobile and wireless technologies revealed that using the mobile learning tool system was an effective educational tool that contributed to the success of students. In addition, the learners achieved a great improvement in reading comprehension, motivation towards learning as well as in fostering knowledge sharing, enhancing peer support on educational affairs and nurturing knowledge communities. 

However, other uses of Whatapp according to Chokri (2015:223) are:

• WhatsApp instant messaging facilitates online collaboration and cooperation between online students connected from school or home in a blended mobile lecture. 
• WhatsApp is a free application that is easy to use.
• Groups connected to WhatsApp instant massaging can share learning objects easily through comments, texting and messaging. Discussions are related to the course content taught 100% in-class. 
• WhatsApp provides students with the ability to create a class publication and thereby publish their work in the group.
• Information and knowledge are easily constructed and shared through WhatsApp instant messaging. 

Challenges

Some of the challenges observed when using Whatsapp as an instructional platform include:

1. Lack of ICT facilitates in schools such as computers, projectors and android phones.
2. Lack of  knowledge in the use of online media platforms by some lecturers
3. Epileptic power in the country.
4. Reluctance/indifference to use digital technology during teaching.
5. Willingness on the part of students to learn using online platforms.

Conclusion

Online media platforms such as the Whatsapp are gaining more awareness with regard to instructional activities globally and are fast replacing the traditional face to face medium of teaching. The system is innovative and enables both lecturers and students to teach and learn collaboratively from any part of the world and sometimes at their own pace. The benefits as have been enumerated are enormous some of which include interacting with peers/students from different climes, sharing knowledge together, quick dissemination of information, storage of information for eternity among others. Tertiary institutions therefore, will do well by incorporating this education platform and use it effectively in improving teaching learning outcomes.

Suggestions

The following are hereby suggested:

1. ICT facilities should be fully installed in tertiary institutions in the country.
2. Lecturers should key into the use of Whatsapp as an instructional platform.
3. Steady power should be available in schools for online instructional applications.
4. Whatsapp should be used in giving assignments.
5. It should be used in conducting exams.
6. It should be used for class activities.

References

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ACRL (2018) Guidelines for media resources in academic libraries: Revision. www.ala.org/acrl.

Aishareef, F. (2018).The importance of using mobile learning in supporting teaching and learning of English in secondary stage. Journal of Education and Practice, 9(15), 71-88. 

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Bhagwat, H. (2016). How can I use WhatsApp for educational purpose? https://www.quora.com/Howcan-I-use-WhatsApp-for-educational-Purpose.

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Abstract

Academic freedom in tertiary institutions in Nigeria is gradually being threatened by government and societal encroachments. Such interference from government could be seen for instance in the University quota system for admission of students, appointment of Vice Chancellors, lecturers, non-academic staff and generation of university courses and contents for students among others. Where this is allowed to continue, the beauty of academic freedom in schools may be gone in no distant time. In order to proffer solution to Nigeria’s many societal problems. Some persons have argued that what the country needs presently is a solid human development for all its citizens, which presently is at its lowest ebb due to decadence in values. There is the growing belief that human development is achievable if the tertiary institutions are allowed to practice academic freedom, a situation which grants lecturers, students and the academic institutions free access to knowledge, research and operations without interference from government or other bodies, creating in the process, new ideas that can be developed and freely exchanged. Likewise, academic freedom enables lecturers and students freedom to teach, study, pursue knowledge to any length; investigate assertions, statements, opinions and theories and express their findings without interference, in modest ways, which enhance academic excellence. Moreover, institutions through this channel determine their hierarchy in the form of governing council, senate, faculties, departments, etc. and determine the appointments of staff, curriculum, course contents and admission requirements among others. These help in promoting unhindered teaching and learning processes in classrooms and attaining tertiary institutions’ goals and objectives. However, where academic freedom is threatened or absent, there may be inability of universities to pursue sacred functions, scholars being forced to owe loyalty to the party in power, with the consequence of political consideration over truth as the decisive factor in ascertaining intellectual issues, loss of job security, university councils becoming rubber stamps for government decisions and the inevitable fall in academic standards, leading to poor academic products and decaying/problematic society. It was thus suggested among others that universities should be allowed the opportunity to enjoy the principles of academic freedom, they should be given free hand to ascertain the criteria for admitting students, regulate courses of instruction as well as maintain the culture of democratic principles.

Introduction

The tertiary institutions are considered citadels of learning where students are groomed by lecturers so that they can fulfill their dreams, aspirations and destinies in life. They constitute the highest level of the educational ladder after those of primary and secondary schools; hence, great interest is invested in them by government and other education stakeholders including private individuals; since they help in building nations.

Essentially, tertiary institutions exist to implement the basic functions of teaching, research and services to the society. This indicates that they comprise people, who not only search for knowledge but channel their findings to the larger society in order to promote the well-being of the citizens. Similarly, tertiary institutions assist in the transmission of knowledge and training of human minds, through scholarly and research activities which could result in the advancement of knowledge. Hence, Adagbesan (2011) claimed that the tertiary institution is a community of scholars which believes in the supremacy of the mind over matter and the subject of everything to the intellect. Therefore, tertiary institutions refer to where concepts are hallowed, revered and preserved for ages and where traditions are subjected to serious scrutiny for consolidation, implementation and generation of new ideas that will benefit the society. Interestingly, at the fore-front of these research studies and knowledge creation are the lecturers.

Lecturers constitute essential members of an educational institution who perform critical roles in educating the learners. They are professionals who assist to transform school policies into action and help in the growth and development of individuals. Among their functions are to help in molding the character of students, transmit knowledge, convey information, appraise the school environment and facilitate effective teaching and learning processes (Amadioha, 2017; Ile & Mekui-Ndinele, 2021). Lecturers are bridges that make teaching and learning possible; and are construed as builders whose performances depend on their qualification, preparation and experience. The availability and effectiveness of lecturers determine the performances of students in school; hence the notion that the quality of an education system is dependent on the quality of its educators. Eventually, they are evaluated through their class room performances (Ibrar & Khan, 2015).

The performance of lecturers can be considered the skill, knowledge and competence with which they implement their duties and responsibilities (Falaye & Awopeju, 2012). It connotes fulfilling one’s obligation and duties and the accomplishment of set goals and objectives. This includes disseminating knowledge, providing guidance and counseling services to students for both on and off school activities, etc. It shows that the performance of lecturers is ultimately measured by the performance of their students. That is, how far students will go in their class activities, examinations and projects / dissertations / theses depends on the efforts of their lecturers in terms of lectures, counsels, supervision, etc.

Students are learners whose quest in institutions of learning is to acquire knowledge, improve themselves and become valuable members of a given society. They are the essential reason for any education set up as without them, no educational institution can exist or function. The more students learn, the better they become. Consequently, tertiary education (universities and polytechnics) students need to be given all the necessary and conducive learning environment in order to be morally, economically and socially sound (Armstrong, 2007; Mugizi et al, 2015).    

Lecturers give their best in classrooms consequent on many factors such as academic freedom, adequate remuneration, infrastructure, institutional administration, job security and recognition. This means that the school environment is very important in the performance of lecturers, students and the school administrators. While a healthy school environment laced with academic freedom among virtues promotes success, a poor school environment hinders it (Audu et al, 2013; Rostan, 2010). This paper shall however, concentrate on academic freedom; even as it constitutes one of the biggest measures for lecturers’ and students’ performances in classrooms.

• Concept of Academic Freedom

Academic freedom shows the freedom of lecturers, teachers, instructors, students and academic institutions to teach, study and pursue knowledge wherever it may lead, without undue interference from government, institutions or public pressure. It is the freedom to engage in a whole range of activities involved in the production of knowledge, including choosing a research focus, ascertaining what to teach in the classroom, presenting research findings to colleagues and publishing research findings (Audu et al, 2013).

In 1940, the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) and the Association of American Colleges and Universities published a Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure which has become a professional standard of academic freedom, endorsed by more than 180 scholarly and professional organizations and incorporated into hundreds of college and university faculty handbooks; which states thus:

Teachers are entitled to full freedom in research and in the publication of the results, subject to the adequate performance of their other academic duties … Teachers are entitled to freedom in the classroom in discussing their subject, but they should be careful not to introduce into their teaching controversial matter that has no relation to their subjects… (Euben, 2002).

From the above statement, lecturers should endeavour to avoid controversial issues not related to the subject. When they speak or write in public, they may be free to express their opinions without fear from institutional censorship or discipline but they should demonstrate restraint and lucidly state that they are not speaking for their institution (Arikewuyo & Ilusanya, 2010). Academic freedom is consequently, both a freedom and a responsibility – freedom to follow knowledge without interference but the responsibility to preserve both the standards of academic and societal norms.

Furthermore, academic freedom has been construed as a major condition to achieve essential goals that facilitate knowledge, the quality of research as well as the encouragement and support of initiative (Rostan, 2010). It is also connected to professional autonomy, as regards the pursuit of truth without fear or negative sanctions. Relatedly, institutions have no restriction from religious or political authorities, including their freedom to organize their work. It also enables various institutions to ascertain research and teaching goals and priorities to set standards and to assess and steer academic activities.

According to Owusu-Ansah (2015), academic freedom requires individuals, authorities and government not only to enable scholars work without restraint but also prevent any interference with this freedom. Also, academic freedom appears to require something more, that the society creates conditions in which novel ideas can be generated, developed and freely exchanged.

• Dimensions of Academic Freedom

Academic freedom may be observed in four dimensions which are the individual, institutional, professional and student. (Downs, 2009; Owusu-Ansah, 2015). The individual academic freedom protects an individual lecturer in a tertiary institution. In many cases, it aligns with the normal ways that faculty boards, heads of department and deans operate when they consider who to hire, promote, give contract or tenure, give salary increase and who gets his employment contract terminated. Likewise, individual academic freedom demonstrates how lecturers relate with their university administration.

The institutional academic freedom protects tertiary institutions from interference by government, a right that applies to the community of scholars, not to separate faculty (Ile & Mekuri- Ndimele, 2021). It also enables tertiary institutions the reserve in selection of faculties and students, design of curriculum, course contents for the different classes or levels as well as selection of staff and students. Moreover, issues in curriculum and the contents of the courses are agreed upon by the departments and academic board. However, institutional academic freedom does not protect individual lecturers and students with unorthodox or negative views from dismissal by the university administration but it does protect them from dismissal by politicians. Thus, in view of institutional academic freedom, tertiary institutions can decide for themselves on academic grounds who may teach, what may be taught, how it shall be taught, textbooks to be used, syllabus for courses, institution of academic rules and regulations, maintenance of discipline and who must be admitted to study (Downs, 2009; Euben, 2002).

Again, in as much as the 1994 AAUP declaration seemed to embrace both individual and institutional academic freedom, it brings out a third form of academic professionals such as lawyers, doctors, architects, among others into departments supported by their national organizations and dependent on scholarly disciplines. These departments have garnered some powers that make it essential for them to be consulted whenever the need arises for some major policy decisions to be considered and implemented.

The fourth academic freedom relates to students which was addressed in AAUP’s 1967 joint statement on Right and Freedom of students (Ramsden, 2005; Assien & Lawal, 2007). It demonstrates the essence of displaying critical judgement that strongly embraces students’ right to due process and fair inquiry; which include the right to take an exception to data and views offered in classrooms, right to conduct unbiased research, right to expression, etc. Academic freedom ensures that tertiary institutions are unhindered / unrestricted in the areas of inquiry, which enables students and scholars to challenge the conventional wisdom of any field which includes education, art, politics and science.

• Lecturers’ Effectiveness  and Academic Freedom

Lecturers’ effectiveness has been conceptualized and operationalized differently by numerous authors and scholars over the years. It is an abstract construct that cannot be pointed to or measured directly, however, most scholars agree it is a multidimensional construct implying that it has multiple components and dimensions (Falaye & Awopeju, 2012). In the opinion of Zainudin et al (2010), lecturers’ effectiveness is one of the critical factors in the success of any educational programme. This is because they are directly involved in the educational process and are responsible for imparting to students knowledge and acceptable behaviours. Thus, lecturers’ effectiveness in tertiary institutions where academic freedom is observed, is a major aspect to focus on to produce world-class teaching and to maintain talented human capital.

While an abstract concept, most authors agree that lecturers’ effectiveness constitutes indicators that can be measured directly. Teh et al (2011) maintained that at the basic level, lecturers’ effectiveness can be distinguished into a process and an outcome aspect. The process also called the behaviour aspect, connotes what people do while at work. Thus, the behaviour which people show can be used as indicators of lecturers’ effectiveness. Examples of such behaviour include presentation of learning experiences, preparation of lesson notes and utilization of illustrations to concretize class instructions. The outcome aspect refers to the result of lecturers’ behaviour. These results could help in improving students understanding of abstract concepts, increased performance in examination, problem-solving skills, critical thinking, etc. (Okogbaa & Inabiri, 2019).

Lecturers’ effectiveness therefore is the capacity of lecturers to engage in different aspects of teaching such as subject mastery, lesson preparation and presentation, effective communication, as well as personal interaction with students and other members of staff. This multidimensional approach is also recognized in the definition of Awotua-Efebo in Okogbaa and Inabimi (2019) as behaviours or actions that are relevant to the goals of the educational institution. It shows that lecturers’ effectiveness should include only behaviours that are relevant to the instructional goals.

According to Aina (2013), an effective lecturer as one who consistently achieves goals which either directly or indirectly focus on the learning of the students. Hence, lecturers’ effectiveness shows the degree to which a lecturer achieves the desired effect upon students. This may be differentiated from lecturer competence which is the extent to which the lecturer possesses the requisite knowledge and skills; and lecturer performance as the way a lecturer behaves in the process of teaching. Lecturers’ effectiveness equally is the achievement of all or most of the learning objectives and reduction of differences in cognitive levels among the students just as effective teaching is the type of teaching characterized by the exhibition of intellectual, social and emotional stability, love for learners and positive disposition towards the teaching profession and ability to inspire good qualities in students. Also, Darling-Hammond and Adamson (2010) defined an effective lecturer as one who is intellectually challenging, motivating students, setting high standards and encourages self-initiating learning. Such lecturers attempts to achieve the goals which they set for themselves or which have been set for them by others such as ministries of education, legislators and other government officials and school administrators.

Primarily, the notion of academic freedom confers on staff of higher education institutions respect among equals in the society in which they find themselves. University staff are consequently regarded as embodiment of knowledge disseminators. The function of community service is an expectation that the members of the community require from such individuals.

Likewise, the enjoyment of academic freedom in higher education institutions enables freedom of speech. Norms of civility are expected to be used in expressing ideas or beliefs both in teaching students and conducting research regardless of how insensitive the subject matter might appear. The university and its staff can face sanctions if it is considered to have made insightful pronouncements about an individual or about a political issue. Hence, they are obliged at every time to be accurate, show respect for the opinions of others and should make every effort to assert that they are not speaking for the institution.

Also, the practice of academic freedom limits researchers and scholars to copy someone else’s work without acknowledging the source. It is imperative that further research into previous findings may reveal other outcomes. It is however unacceptable for a researcher to falsify data to get a result.

• Challenges of Academic Freedom and the Way Forward

Though the government of Nigeria allows academic freedom in the universities, there are some challenges. In fact, the government itself has put an impediment in the way of this freedom with the proviso that it would only respect those areas of academic freedom if they are in consonance with national goals.

For example, in the area of the admission of students, although universities are permitted to admit their own students, the government has given some guidelines which must be strictly complied with by the institutions. This is where the issue of quota system of admission comes in. Admission into Nigerian universities is under the umbrella of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB). In other words, though the universities do the selection of candidates, the entrance examination is centrally done by JAMB. Assien and Lawal (2007) averred that JAMB came into being as a central testing and placement agency in response to the problems of individual universities with regards to multiple applications by candidates and multiple admissions. With the establishment of JAMB, the placement of candidates into the universities take into account the vacancies available in each institution, the guidelines approved for each institution by the proprietors and other competent authorities and the preference expressed for each institution and courses and following some stipulated guidelines. Recently, the issue of the carrying capacity of each university was also added by the National Universities Commission (NUC).

On the issue of appointment of staff, the universities are relatively free. Each university has a governing council, which takes care of appointment, promotion and discipline of staff. Arikewuyo and Ilusanya (2010) have observed that government in Nigeria does not often infringe on the power of the university councils to appoint, promote and discipline staff. However, there has been some instances particularly during the military era, when some lecturers were dismissed because the military felt they were not teaching what they were employed to teach.

In addition, some governments in Nigeria have removed vice chancellors for noncompliance with military directives, to the extent that a Major General was appointed as a sole administrator in a first generation university. This soon became a pattern with the appointment of Sole Administrators in ten universities since 1997. In University of Nigeria, Nsuka, for instance, 180 academic staff were unilaterally sacked. Many of them were also arrested, detained and charged with arson (Arikewuyo & Ilusanya, 2010).

In terms of education curriculum, Nigerian universities are still facing some challenges. This is due to the fact that curriculum and content of courses are relatively subjected to the approval of the National University Commission. Part of the functions of the NUC is to lay down minimum academic standards in universities, to accredit their degrees and other academic awards and ensure that quality is maintained within the academic programmes of the Nigerian University System. Consequently, all academic programmes of a university must be approved and accredited by the NUC before they are commenced. The implication of this is that the Senate of a university does not have absolute power over the courses of instruction in the university. Also, the NUC has laid down Minimum academic standard (MAS) for all programmes in the university system; hence, the visit of NUC to the universities to ensure that all courses are run in line with the approved Minimum Academic Standards (MAS). In this regard, Okojie (2011) stated that because there is no absolute freedom, universities are subjected to the scrutiny of their peers through the instrumentality of the accreditation exercises.

Probably, the area where Nigerian universities have enjoyed most academic freedom is in the area of research. The institutions, whether collectively or as individual academics have been conducting research and also advancing knowledge without interference or hindrance from the government (Arikewuyo & Ilusanya, 2010). The Nigerian government has indeed encouraged academics to conduct research and publish the findings of such research endeavour without any hindrances. This fact was attested to by Okojie (2011), when he noted that universities in Nigeria have enjoyed freedom in the area of research because they determine what to teach, how to teach without the intervention of government. In line with this, the Federal Government of Nigeria (2014) agrees that all tertiary institutions shall pursue their goals through teaching; research and development; virile staff development; generation and dissemination of knowledge; inter-institutional cooperation; dedicated services to the community through extra-mural and extension services; a variety of modes of programmes including full-time, part-time, block-release; day-release, sandwich, etc.

Nevertheless, research has become cost-exorbitant, with limited Tetfund support for lecturers and practically none of students (Audu et al, 2013; Euben, 2002). Students in particular are made to go the extra mile in research works as they source for funds on their own. Government is supposed to fully fund research activities to any level in order to facilitate continual knowledge but this is not the case. It is a pity that after spending much to source for and gather research information, additional cost is required for publications. 

In the observation of Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), universities stand to suffer from the following dangers if academic freedom is neglected / ignored;

• Inability of universities to pursue sacred functions,
• Scholars being forced to owe loyalty to the party in power, with the consequence of political consideration rather than concern for truth being the decisive factor in determining intellectual issues,
• Loss of job security,
• University councils, becoming rubber stamps for government decisions; and
• Inevitable fall of standards (Ya’u in Arikewuyo & Ilusanya, 2010).

It is imperative therefore that all education stakeholders including government and school administrators should respect the doctrine of academic freedom. This is the true path to greater and stronger academic excellence in our institutions of learning in present dispensation.

Human Capital Theory by Adams Smith (1976), Developed by Gary Becker (1964)

Human capital theory was propounded by Adams Smith (1776) and was later developed by Gary Becker in 1964. It states that man’s capacity to perform various tasks is dependent on the skills and knowledge inbuilt in him and external forces such as education, training and incentives which help to enhance his qualities. Human capital theory implies the aggregate stock of knowledge, competencies, social and personal attributes embodied in an intrinsic measure of economic value. It views individuals as economic entities who are relevant in an economy.

The basic concept of the theory is that investments in individuals can be measured based on the economic value that they are able to contribute to the society. In every society, there is the ever increasing need for growth; therefore, human capital theory establishes that there is a great relationship between the growth in the stock of a nation’s human resources and the growth of national output. It is beneficial therefore that nations which want to achieve a specific level of socio-economic manpower resources, invest in their country’s human resources. This means that educational systems should be able to produce the right type of manpower (human capital) in the right proportion, quantity and time for national growth and development.

The education goal of every society centres on the development of its citizens to be moral and effective; having equal access to a qualitative education and building up persons who can be totally integrated into their immediate environment and other environment as stipulated in the National Policy on Education (FGN, 2014).This can only be achieved when qualified lecturers are engaged and encouraged to teach in educational institutions. A major problem lecturers and students are currently facing in their schools is limited academic freedom. The productive efforts of the work force in all social setting can be enhanced through the employment and proper utilization of qualitative manpower (lecturers); including according them their rights.

This theory is relevant to academic freedom as it relates to the proper management and respect for human resources. It further recognizes the efforts of lecturers in the academic world especially in the development of students. Consequently, human resources will be more effective when employed, qualified and trained lecturers are allowed to work in conducive environment which will help enhance their performances in classrooms. Such friendly environment includes allowing lecturers and students free access to scholarly research studies, publications and uninterrupted teaching and learning outcomes in schools. This further helps in facilitating quality output in tertiary institutions and the nation at large.

Conclusion / Suggestions 

Consequent on the foregoing, it is apparent that for a meaningful university education and for Nigerian universities to achieve the goals for which they have been established, it is imperative for them to enjoy the principles of academic freedom. In this wise, the universities should be permitted free hands to govern themselves. This implies that the curriculum of the institutions would be guarded and monitored by their respective Senates. It is necessary that the universities are allowed to be run according to universally acceptable norms and principles in order to attain their objectives. Hence, the various organs of the university, such as Governing council, Senate, Faculties and Departments should be allowed to perform their statutory functions.

The role of the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) in the admission process may be reviewed. For example, obnoxious regulations which compel the universities to admit students on quota basis should be discarded such that JAMB will only be a clearing house and coordinating agency for university admission. By so doing, each university would be permitted to determine the criteria for admission as well as determine the quality of the candidates to be admitted.

Similarly, while it is desirable for the National Universities Commission (NUC) to perform its duty of assuring quality in the universities, the institutions should still be free to regulate their course of instruction and curricula through the Senate of each institution.

Equally, both the federal and state governments, particularly Visitors to the universities need to imbibe the culture of democratic principles. In this wise, the universities should be allowed to govern themselves according to the laws and acts that establish them. Academic freedom should therefore be a fundamental human right of the universities. A situation whereby academics are summarily dismissed by Visitors without recourse to university councils must be discarded.

In the view of the Magna Charta Universitatum of 1988, for a university to meet the needs of the world around it, its research and teaching must be morally and intellectually independent of the political authorities and economic power. Such research should help in developing the students, lecturers, administrators (tertiary institution’s human resources) and ultimately the society, for a better harmonious living

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Abstract

The study has discussed the relevance of moral reasoning as an essential value in university education in Nigeria, in the wake of high decadence in values in the Nigeria society in all its sectors. The attitude of most Nigerians towards values is very poor; as demonstrated by extreme materialism, cultism, high level of corruption, election malpractice, examination malpractice, kidnapping, tribalism, banditry, religious intolerance, gender-based violence and lawlessness among others. These vices have been blamed on miseducation, unemployment, greed, poor governance, etc, while the problems emanating from them abound such as poor products from educational institutions, many killings, inter and intra communal unrests, poorly managed economy, extreme poverty, poor representation in government, decay in public infrastructure, democratic apathy, brain drain, etc. The nation cannot move forward unless its citizens are reoriented in values which should both be imbibed and utilized, one of which is moral reasoning. The application of this value will help Nigerian citizens in their activities and actions in order to make mature and positive choices that will help build themselves and the society. It was thus recommended among others that there should be effective and consistent communication between the teachers and students until values are inculcated in them; that teachers should constantly remember their role as models to students which should be shown in their conduct, attitude and teaching and that students should be taught the essence of values such as moral reasoning in the society.

Introduction

Moral reasoning addresses the capability to differentiate between right and wrong, truth and falsehood, honesty and dishonesty, just and unjust, correct and incorrect, etc in a given society. It explains the ability of people to differentiate between the above adjectives depending on their conscience and understanding. Human beings are known to have the ability to reason either rightly or wrongly and proceed with taking certain actions.

In the view of Aminigo (2003), an individual’s moral knowledge does not have to do with his size, look, strength or stamina. It all depends on one’s upbringing and consciousness; thus, a person’s moral behaviour may be measured by one’s moral reasoning,  cultural values, understanding, laws of the land, level of education, essence and beliefs; economic condition, spiritual advancement and discipline among others. Everybody reasons but at different levels and forms; also, moral reasoning evolves or develops with time.

According to Bolerin (2007) and Blake (2001), moral reasoning is much needed in present day Nigeria where virtues such as honesty, truth-telling, incorruption, justice and chastity are fading. In a society where people are very corrupt including those who make laws, moral reasoning becomes imperative for people to imbibe. It is helpful to school administrators, lecturers, non-teaching staff, students, education policy makers, government and also to workers of other organizations as well as the ordinary man in the streets (Ugwu, 2015).

Education and Values

Education according to Fafunwa (1974), is the combination of all the processes by which a child or young adult develops the abilities, attitudes and other forms of behaviour which are of positive value to the society in which he lives. As a social institution, education derives its form from the values of the society in which it exists. Education is the right acquisition of values and is the knowledge of things that are worthwhile (Peters, 1979). It exhibits relevance, potentiality and efficiency and is adapted to the needs of the society; and addresses issues such as dignity of labour, leadership and committed citizenship, self-reliance, industrial harmony, etc.

Education is further used by Ukeje in Okoli (2011) as a process, a product and as a discipline. As a process, it assists in developing, preserving and transmitting peoples’ culture from generation to generation. As a product, it concerns itself with change (in character) whether overt or covert, implicit or explicit which is to be found in the life of the learner. Therefore, the product of education is an educated man who is expected to demonstrate intellectual and moral acumen in improving the society. As a discipline, education is a body of systematic and organized knowledge designed to help both the educator and educated in critical thinking.

Likewise, the development of sound values and moral character has remained a cardinal national objective of education in Nigeria, with the advent of Western education in the country. For instance, education is expected to equip its recipients with skills for economic resources to help them conquer poverty as well as social skills for forging excellent relationships with other members of the society. Hence, economic emancipation is achievable and the recipients’ living standard enhanced. These features show that education is capable of making a man great and useful to his society through values enhancement (Aminigo, 2003a, Mann, 1990).

Consequently, values such as filial piety, respect for people e.g. elders; chastity, dignity of labour, patriotism, honesty, justice, and hospitality are taught the individual. Other values which education teaches people include courage, self-reliance, appreciation of one’s language, folklore, music, art, drama, song, dance; truth- telling and very importantly moral reasoning (Okoh, 2012; Aminigo, 2003). The above compliments which are associated with education are further elaborated by Aminigo (2003: 2) in the following words:

… education is meant to enhance the attainment of social goals that are positive. This logically means that education prepares human beings to live well with their fellows: cooperating with and mutually understanding each other to ensure peaceful co-existence. Peaceful co-existence itself is hinged on values such as honesty, truth-telling, justice, fairness, fraternity, goodness …

Regretfully, in the present society, instead of seeing these values, what is prevalent are vices. It appears that something is missing in the current education system; otherwise, how can one explain the fact that most people go to school only to come out worse in character instead of the opposite? Education is supposed to build/mould/instill and strengthen positive character in individuals and not the other way. These days, vices abound such as bribery and corruption, kidnapping, drug and human trafficking, child abuse, sexual assault, killings, terrorism, robbery, cultism, vandalism, disregard for the rule of law and freedom of expression, hate speeches, extreme materialism among others (Okolo, 2011; Njoku, 2015). Sadly, many have blamed these vices on miseducation, poor guidance, greed and unemployment among others. It further shows the need for education stakeholders in the country to carefully appraise its education system; especially on the need to reinforce values in schools.

Values construct  standards, principles or criteria for judging the worth of anything, for judging things on the one hand to be good, worthwhile or desirable; and on the other hand to be bad, worthless, despicable; or somewhere in between these extremes (Iheoma, 1995). Values are seen as beliefs in the sense that all beliefs have cognitive, affective and behavioural components. Therefore, values encapsulate the reasons and motives for human behaviour and existence.

Also, values are the indices of what the society expects of its members. This implies that values are considered as accepted norms/standards in a social system which gives meaning and direction to an attitude. Thus, the value system of a society emanates from the environment and how the individuals make use of the environment; such value system if presented, can be transferred to the coming generations (Okoli, 2011; Nwabuisi, 2000). Through appropriate and adequate education, the above can be achieved.

Moral Reasoning and Morality

Moral reasoning is discussed closely with morality. Bulls in Aminigo and Nwaokugha (2006), averred that morality is got from the Latin word ‘mores’ which construes “manners” or “morals”, ie the general accepted code of human conduct in a society. It could also mean the pursuit of the good life without going by the accepted code of a society. This demonstrates that doing what is right, just and fair is equated with morality. Morality thus becomes a very crucial aspect of human beings since without it, a society is dead or will be in chaos (Akinpelu, 1983). Through it however, human beings display that natural sense of moral consciousness which enables them to regulate their dealings with one another; thus, facilitating social equilibrium and cohesiveness.

Morality is also needed for a peaceful society devoid of social unrest and fear as is in the state of nature which Thomas Hobbes discussed (Dewey, 1968). In Hobbes’ state of nature, there was fear and tension within the human race. People were uncertain of the next moment since there was no one to watch over them. Their lives and property were at risk, amidst competition among men. There was the need to have common moral values that would guide their conduct among themselves. They thus, sought for credible men who could rule over them to protect their interests (Bebebiafiai, 2003).

In present society, morality could imply the theory of what is right or wrong in human conduct or putting it objectively, a body or system of what is seen as right or wrong in human action (Osaat, 2006). It goes beyond personal behaviour or sexual behaviour as some thought in the past and embraces every action of individuals as well as how they affect themselves, others and the society at large.

The Nature of Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning like other ethical concepts has its nature, which can be analyzed from at least three perspectives – logicality, stages and principles. In the first instance, moral reasoning is logical. For example, the individual is expected to weigh his options before taking a decision, He is faced with the choice of good and bad as well as right and wrong. He has to choose which one will benefit him more or what is expected of him (Akinpelu, 1983; Bebebiafiai, 2003). Assuming an individual is presented with a scenario of forging a signature (maybe as an accountant in a bank) in order to make some fast money in one day which is equivalent to 5 times his monthly salary, he has to choose to either forge the signature and steal in the process or remain loyal to his employer and wait for his pay.

Morality in this context expects the individual to go for the latter which is remaining faithful. Other situations could be: Should a staff lie in the office to cover up the mistakes of his boss, colleague, etc or lie to gain promotion? Should one open a church because of money making or open a school to extort the public build houses to extort tenants? Should vacancies be advertised to extort the public and give applicants false hopes? Should a person sell a parcel of land to an individual only to resell it to another individual because of bigger profits? Many instances abound. Hence the ability of individuals to apply moral reasoning in their actions comes as a result of moral grooming and mental development (Aminigo, 2003; Oputa, 2023).

Likewise, moral reasoning occurs in stages which are majorly four, namely anomy (or pre-morality), heteronomy, socionomy and autonomy. The anomy stage is that stage where children mainly between the ages of 1 – 5 are involved. These children are innocent in their thinking as they know nothing. They cannot differentiate between right and wrong. At this stage, moral reasoning is very low. Almond (2004:134) presented an exciting picture about this stage:

For interaction with the world and other human beings starts even before the ability to walk or talk are required, and certainly before the ability to reason can play a role. When a human infant is first aware of itself as facing a situation of choice, it has, consciously or unconsciously, had its first encounter with the possibility of morality. It is to be expected that the grounds of that first choice will be the satisfaction of its own needs and wants. Later, the interest of others will be encountered as a constraint. Perhaps, later still, the awareness of a more distinctively moral ground for action will emerge. It is the search for the source of this potential moral life and the attempt to ground it on a secure theoretical basis that provides much of the substance of moral philosophy.

While examining the work of Piaget, May in Aminigo and Nwaokugha (2006), stated that the anomy stage is marked by egocentrism as the child is only concerned about himself and is indifferent to the welfare of others. The second stage (about 6-llyears) which is the heteronomy stage captures the child showing awareness of the interests of others. He shares time with others and accepts the family-imposed rules especially from his parents as final. The morality of this stage is objective, not subjective and is dependent on the guidance of the rule of adults and those in authority. Also, the judgment of the child is based on the immediate consequences of actions he takes with regard to available rules and regulations.

The socionomy stage is an improvement on the heteronomy stage since the child lives his life in consideration of what the society expects from him (Mbagwe, 2018; Aminigo, 2003). The morality of this stage is partly objective and partly subjective. Likewise, the fourth stage is the autonomy stage where the individual is matured in thinking and acts not because of what is expected of him but because of what he thinks is right to do. The individual puts the interest and welfare of himself and others at heart in his dealings and does not wait for people to tell him what to do.

Very essentially, moral reasoning assists in developing the critical thinking skills in people. Critical thinking involves the careful analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to make a judgment. It is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, synthesizing and generating information through observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication, as a guide to belief and action (Osaat et al, 2018). It is dependent on universal intellectual values which transcend subject matter decisions such as clarity, accuracy, precision, relevance, sound evidence, consistency, good reason, breath, depth and fairness and entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem or question-of-issue, concepts, assumptions and reasoning, leading to conclusions, implications, consequences, objections from alternative viewpoints and frame of reference. Critical thinking is essential in proving a point, interpreting what something means or solving a problem and enables individuals to make essential distinctions (Paul & Garrett, 2014).

Strengthening Moral Reasoning in University Education

The apex level of the education system in Nigeria is the tertiary institution. In a bid to pass the message of moral reasoning to students at this level, general courses should be useful. Especially at the undergraduate level, two major courses that cut across disciplines are Nigerian Peoples and Culture as well as Philosophy and Logic. Consequently, the virtue of moral reasoning should be fully treated either as a topic in the two courses or as a course on its own. Lecturers will do well to carefully and painstakingly discuss its relevance in the decaying society, knowing that this level of learning presents the final opportunity of inculcating values into students. The facilitators of knowledge should do their best in their various institutions to promote values in the lives of the students for a better society. If they get it right, the society gains but if they get it wrong, the society loses/suffers.

As pragmatic scholars and educationists sometimes, one may want to analyze recent happenings in the country e.g.  its education system and see if the pre-colonial period is preferred to the present era. However, as eclectic and autonomous beings, it is necessary that values are drawn from both traditional and western cultures by individuals to become better citizens. Consequently, lecturers in higher institutions of learning through courses such as Nigerian Peoples and Culture and Philosophy and Logic, among others, can expose students to the realm of great critical thinking for knowledge creation, generalization and usage.

Case Study 1: Human Rights Violation of the Niger Deltans (Using Nigerian People and Culture as a Course)

The human rights violations in Niger Delta by the government of Nigeria appear to be perpetrated under the guise of maintenance of law and order in the country. An observer at first sight would rush to the side of the government in view of the destruction of common goods, not understanding the genesis of the pursuit of these Niger Deltans and their sufferings and deaths. Since May 1999; the inauguration of the first democratically elected president of the country, President Olusegun Obasanjo, the government has continuously used indiscriminate lethal force in response to criminal activities, protests relating to oil production or ethnic conflict in the regions (Human Rights Watch, 2000); due to government’s persistence of siding with the oil corporations and avoidance of their primary responsibilities to protect lives and properties in the region. Some of the human rights violations in the Niger Delta region thus include:

1. Environmental Hazards:

The primary right of every human being is the right to life. Life is facilitated by different natural mechanisms and when through human interventions those facilitators are being disrupted to provide from the sustenance of life, a huge problem hence emanates. The reckless oil drilling practices of the oil corporations which leads to pollution of the air, water degradation, extinction of sea animals and death of innocent children who drink the polluted water and die from the resultant effect and more have been a decade long issues yet unsolved.

b.         Inequalities in Resource Allocations:

Logically speaking, it is a sad situation for a landlord to be begging his tenants for a space in his house. This analogy is practically what the situation is like between the Niger Deltans and the Nigerian Government. The resources in their land are extracted and, in most cases, even without their consent, which is where the Fair, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) option is denied them. The revenues are distributed at will by the governments without any consultations or a collectively agreed sharing formula. Also, the development projects in their communities are not fully agreed upon by the government and the local communities. This attitude by the government was reflected in the creation of Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) by the government of President Olusegun Obasanjo against the outcry of the people. The people rejected the move as it did not hold the answer to their problems as the commission would be as corruption-ridden as the previously created bodies that brought no solutions. The commission was to disburse funds for the developmental projects in the region but the government paid deaf ears. As the natural instinct of humans is to love and care for oneself prior to another however, the Nigerian government thinks otherwise; that they love and care for the Niger Deltans more than the Niger Deltans love and care for themselves. Thus, the control over the natural resources was denied the indigenous people alongside the accrued benefits in large quantum.

c.         Lack of Corporate Social Responsibility by the Oil Corporations:

• Research carried out by Amnesty International and Judicial Watch in the Niger Delta region revealed serious violations of Human Rights. The violations included forceful displacement of people and properties as well as environmental degradation amongst other “war crimes” and extrajudicial killings aided by the oil corporations who took advantage of the weak regulatory structure by maximizing profits instead of engaging in their corporate social responsibilities to their host communities. If the corporations had been more responsible despite the existing weak regulatory structures, much difference could have been made to maintain peace and more still, save their staff from the nefarious activities of the armed youths such as being kidnapped.

d.         Forceful Displacement:

1. In 1999, shortly after the killing of 12 Nigerian policemen by an armed group in Odi Community in Bayelsa State (a community of about 15,000 people), the then President of the country, Olusegun Obasanjo deployed soldiers from the Nigerian Army who went on to demolish every single residential building in the community and more than 2,000 people were killed- young, old and children inclusive. Again, in April 2000, some mobile policemen entered the K-Dere village in Gokanna Local Government Area (LGA) in Rivers State and burnt at least ten houses and detained some people due to their opposition to the road projects in the area; including the Human Rights activist Ledum Mitee and at least four of them were later shot dead by the police (Human Rights Watch, 2000). Consequently, communities have been in fear of the consequences of exercising their rights of association, right to life and their indigenous rights.

Food for Thought

1. How best can government in Nigeria curb human rights violations?
2. How best can government compensate Niger Deltans for rights’ violation?
3. Why are the Niger Deltans suffering from unemployment and poverty in-spite of the abundant resources in the region?
4. How can one correct the mindset of some of the youths in the region who feel that quick money is all that matters and that education is irrelevant?
5. What should be the responsibilities of multi-national oil companies that work in the region with regard to the welfare of the Niger Deltans?
6. What have been the conditions that the government of Nigeria gave for multinational oil companies in Niger Delta over the years?
7. Why should host communities in the Niger Delta take only 3% derivation from oil produced in their region and frontal exploration takes 30% in view of the Petroleum Industrial Act (PIA) assented to, by President Muhammadu Buhari on August 16,2021?
8. Why do the elite in Nigeria send their children overseas for education?
9. Why do the elite in Nigeria go abroad for medical check – ups?
10. Why are social amenities such as good roads, school infrastructure, health facilities, power, etc grossly deficient in the Niger Delta region?

Lessons

1. The people of Niger delta deserve adequate compensation of all the years they have been denied adequate social justice by the government.
2. Where there are enough job opportunities for the youths in the Niger delta region, they will not engage in vices such as robbery, kidnaping, oil bunkering, etc.
3. Government should be sincere with the welfare of all citizens in the country including Niger Deltans.
4. For unity to thrive in Nigeria, all the regions in the country should be carried along. That is, true federal character principles should be respected.

Case Study 2:  Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (Using either Nigerian People and Culture or Philosophy and Logic as a Course)

In the novel, Things Fall Apart, written by Chinua Achebe in 1958, the author masterfully draws the attention of his audience to certain societal changes with the coming of the Missionaries in Nigeria. Reading through the chapters and using Okonkwo as a major character, he lucidly differentiates the Nigerian culture from that of the Whites; highlighting their merits and demerits in a skilful manner (Achebe, 1958). One can thus argue that he did not condemn either of both cultures; rather, he narrated the unfolding that ensued. In other words, he was able to highlight essential values in Nigerian traditional culture such as industry, truth-telling, respect and unity just as he highlighted important Western values to include knowledge of the true God (or right passage to Him), the rejection of idols, western education, white collar jobs, social developments, etc.

Food for Thought

1. What was in the mind of the author Chinua Achebe when wrote the novel Things Fall Apart?
2. How can contemporary students in Nigeria compare their culture with those of other nations?

Lessons

1. Moral reasoning is a powerful tool that helps people to be independent in reasoning and also assists people in doing what is right at all times.
2. Every citizen should be able to apply moral reasoning to life issues. This will enable them to grow in character and do what is expected of them at all times.
3. There is always a solution to societal challenges.

On a serious note, the lecturer should brainstorm with his students on these issues. Likewise, students should be encouraged to make contributions, suggestions and ask questions where necessary. These will help in strengthening their moral reasoning abilities.

Conclusion

The paper has shown that moral reasoning as a value is very much needed in university education due to decadence in values in the society.. Common vices include high level of corruption, election malpractice, examination malpractice, excessive materialism, kidnapping, cultism, kidnapping, gender-based violence, laziness, lawlessness, etc. Many have blamed decadence in values on miseducation, poor governance, greed, miseducation, unemployment, etc. Consequently, problems associated with these vices include poor education products, many killings, inter and intra communal unrest, unwanted pregnancies, abortions, poverty, poor representation in government, decay in public infrastructure, etc. These societal ills may however be corrected by strengthening the value of moral reasoning in the university education curriculum.

Recommendations

The following steps are recommended:

1.      There should be effective and consistent communication between the teachers and students until the value of moral reasoning is fully embraced and displayed by the students.

2.      Teachers should continually demonstrate their role as models to students in their conduct, attitudes and teachings,.

3.      The conduct of students in schools should be monitored at all times by school teachers and authorities. If any of them is derailing, such should be counseled and those who refuse good counseling should be disciplined.

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